In this chapter you are invited to enter into an ongoing dialogue about what homelessness is, how it was created, and what we can do to prevent it. Many of the themes identified here will re-emerge throughout the chapters that follow. As you begin to engage with the study of homelessness in Canada, you are encouraged to reflect upon three key questions guiding this chapter’s learning objectives.

1. We begin with an exploration of the question, “What is homelessness?” While perhaps a seemingly simple question, the answer to this is rather complex. It is important to begin with definitions in order to gain a shared sense of language, and to challenge and move past any one-dimensional preconceptions that might exist. The first section offers an opportunity to form a collective understanding of what is meant by ‘homelessness’ that is more complex than a simple dichotomy of ‘homeless’ or ‘not homeless’ would allow.

2. After defining homelessness and considering how it exists in multiple forms, our attention turns to an examination of the question, “How do we know what we know about homelessness?” Information comes from many different sources – research data that is collected, government databases, evaluations, street counts, and even the popular media. This section sets the stage for understanding much of the information that follows throughout future chapters. In order to understand homelessness in Canada, from the street to the classroom, we must first understand where our information comes from.

3. In the final section we consider the important question, “Why does homelessness prevention matter?” If, in fact, we as a society were able to prevent homelessness this book would stop here. Throughout this section, you will learn about the prevention initiatives that are currently underway in Canada and are invited to consider the potential impact that could result if prevention were made a societal priority.

As you move through this chapter it is beneficial to keep in mind that homelessness is rarely an individual choice, but rather results from circumstances in a person’s life that are often beyond their control. You are encouraged to work through this material with an open mind about what you read, hear, and see, even if (or particularly if) it contradicts previous stereotypical images that might have shaped your perceptions about homelessness and homeless people. Read on to learn more about what homelessness means, how we gather information about it, and why we all would benefit from shifting our collective focus towards prevention.

As you being to learn about homelessness and the complex ways in which it is experienced, we encourage you to begin with these real life composite scenarios. Take a moment here to pause and consider these people’s experiences. 

There are many factors that contribute to homelessness and the experience is different for every person. Yet, there is considerable value in recognizing the shared characteristics. In 2012 the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness released a definition that was collaboratively developed and has been widely adopted in research, policy, and practice across the country (Gaetz et al., 2012). Here we discuss this definition with Dr. Stephen Gaetz, President of the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness. Following this video, we encourage you to explore the definition further with an introductory video and then a review of the document itself. 

Dr. Stephen Gaetz: What is homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Stephen Gaetz explains that homelessness describes a situation in which people do not have adequate, safe, and affordable housing, nor the immediate prospect of getting it. It does not arise from a person’s individual characteristics but rather is produced and sustained by society. He notes that blaming individuals for their homelessness fails to hold society responsible for its need to do something about the problem. Dr. Gaetz concludes by discussing the Canadian definition of homelessness, as a document that provides common language and a typology that has been widely adopted by researchers and governments. This video is 3:03 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

As we posed the question, “What is homelessness?” to different researchers, the Canadian definition emerged as a key document that shapes the way we collectively have come to think about homeless as existing along a continuum. The Canadian definition also serves as a starting point for thinking about the experiences of different populations and about housing as a fundamental human right.

Here we share our conversations with Dr. John Ecker, Dr. Kaitlin Schwan, and Dr. Erin Dej, where they discuss how the Canadian definition of homelessness has influenced their understandings of what homelessness means. You will also hear reference to the Indigenous definition of homelessness in Canada, published by scholar Jesse Thistle (2017), which is discussed in detail in the chapter on Indigenous Studies.   

Dr. John Ecker: What is homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. John Ecker offers a comprehensive definition of homelessness as the lack of adequate, suitable, and affordable housing, and as a violation of the human right to housing. Dr. Ecker expands by discussing the four parts of the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness’ definition, which includes people who are unsheltered, emergency sheltered, provisionally accommodated, and at-risk of homelessness. He notes that it is important to think about different subgroups who experience homelessness at higher rates or in unique ways, such as women, families, and youth. Dr. Ecker concludes by drawing attention to how these definitions are westernized understandings, and points towards Jesse Thistle’s definition of Indigenous homelessness as being a useful resource for thinking about homelessness in different ways. This video is 3:32 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Kaitlin Schwan: What is homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Kaitlin Schwan explains that homelessness is a condition where people lack access to permanent and affordable housing that is safe, secure, and able to meet their needs. She notes that homelessness exists along a continuum, from absolutely homeless on one end to being in core housing need on the other. Dr. Schwan argues that within a Canadian context it is critical to understand Indigenous homelessness and points towards the definition developed by Jesse Thistle that identifies 12 dimensions. Dr. Schwan concludes by noting that the 2019 National Housing Strategy Act declared housing to be a human right, and that we need to understand homelessness as a violation of this right. This video is 3:19 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Erin Dej: What is homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Erin Dej explains the four elements that make up the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness’ definition of homelessness. She notes that the first two elements – absolutely homeless and emergency sheltered – are what people most often associate with homelessness. However, she notes it is important to pay attention to the additional elements, which sometimes get overlooked. Those who are provisionally accommodated have somewhere to stay but it is temporary, such as transitional housing, couch surfing, and leaving a correctional or hospital facility without identified housing. Dr. Dej argues we must pay special attention to those at-risk of homelessness because while they have somewhere to stay it is not safe, affordable, or acceptable, such as those who are facing eviction, living in overcrowded housing, and/or experiencing domestic violence. Dr. Dej concludes that we can also learn about people at-risk of homelessness by applying the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation’s definition, of those spending 30% or more on housing as being in core housing need and one crisis away from homelessness. This video is 3:34 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Throughout this book, we will share quotes from a research study we conducted in two small / rural towns in Ontario, as one way to provide space for the voices of people with lived experience. The first of these cards is presented below. To learn more about this project and the participants, please visit the Trent University Homelessness Research Collective (2019) website.

Quote Source

A key component of the Canadian definition of homelessness is that it includes people who are at–risk of losing their housing, due to issues such as spending too much of their income on rent, living in overcrowded conditions, or living in housing that is not good quality. Whether or not the definition should include people who are at-risk has been a hotly debated topic, with some arguing that a broad definition is needed to allow us to focus on prevention, and others arguing a narrow definition allows us to focus resources on those who are most in need. 

What do you think?

Dr. Nick Falvo and Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff both discuss the issue of risk and vulnerability as factors that need to be considered carefully in crafting a definition of homelessness. As you watch these conversations, consider where you stand on this debate. Should the definition of homelessness include people who are at imminent risk of losing their housing? 

Dr. Nick Falvo: What is homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Nick Falvo defines homelessness as relating to people living in an emergency shelter, outside, or in a structure not meant for human habitation. He notes that these individuals tend to be included in point-in-time counts. Beyond this, he explains, there are also individuals who meet the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation’s definition of core housing need. Dr. Falvo argues that while a narrow definition is not as widely accepted, for fear those in housing need will be forgotten, it is possible to have a narrow and broad definition that reflects these housing distinctions. This video is 1:21 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

 Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff: Defining vulnerability 

In this video, Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff explains that to understand the risk of homelessness we must consider people’s access to social and economic protections. There are some people who are relatively immune to homelessness because they have secure jobs and strong cash reserves that will allow them to become rehoused again quickly if they lose their housing. However, Dr. Waegemakers Schiff notes there is a large proportion of society who do not have the same supports to protect them, including people with adverse psychosocial issues, youth who have been displaced and alienated from their homes, women who experience domestic violence, and people with serious physical conditions who are reliant on disability income supports. Dr. Waegemakers Schiff argues that the COVID-19 pandemic exposed many pre-existing vulnerabilities and that who is at risk and who is not, casts the great divide. She concludes by discussing recent research into the vulnerability of post-secondary students during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly as measures closed spaces they rely on for food and shelter. This video is 4:54 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Podcast: What is homelessness? (34:16)

Click the link below to listen to all of the researchers answer the question “What is Homelessness?” in audio format on our podcast!

As you begin this section, we encourage you to think about the question of how we know what we know about homelessness. This question, like many we will explore throughout this book, seems deceptively simple because we may confuse our own opinions and beliefs with validated knowledge. What we know comes from many different sources, some more reliable than others. Before you hear from the researchers in this section, we encourage you to take a moment to jot down your own thoughts. You may also want to consider related questions, such as where you have learned about homelessness, like your home or school, what experiences you have had that might have influenced your perceptions, and whether you feel the information you have received comes from credible sources. Remember that your answer here is just for your reflection, it may be as brief or long as you wish, and it is not going to be seen by others. 

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

It may come as no surprise to you that much of what we know about homelessness in Canada comes from research over the past 40 years. The body of research that has developed over time reflects the different methodologies and approaches researchers have used to learn about this issue. You may be interested to know that much of the interactive content for this book comes from our partners at the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness, which is the largest national research institute devoted to homelessness in Canada. They are also the curator of the Homeless Hub, an online library of over 30,000 resources.

Throughout this book, you will get to hear directly from many influential researchers in the field of homelessness, who have helped to create the research that shapes public policy decisions today. As our knowledge continually evolves, we have made the conscious decision to focus on studies that were published by Canadian researchers within the 5 years preceding publication of this book. In the next set of videos, you will hear from Dr. Kaitlin Schwan and Dr. John Ecker, who provide an overview of how research has changed over time, the importance of peer-review and evaluation, and the impact on modern day policy. 

Dr. Kaitlin Schwan: How do we know what we know about homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Kaitlin Schwan explains that mass homelessness, as we know it today in Canada, started to emerge in the 1980s. In response, we have tried many policy and program interventions, which have been evaluated using a range of research methods. The knowledge from these studies has been synthesized in peer-reviewed journals and made publicly available, such as through the Homeless Hub website. Dr. Schwan notes the key to understanding homelessness is listening to people with lived expertise, as they have experienced the ways various systems and structures operate to create conditions for those living without housing. This video is 1:46 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. John Ecker: How do we know what we know about homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. John Ecker discusses the trajectory of homelessness research, from an early focus on investigating the causes and consequences, to a modern day focus on applied research into identifying solutions and empowering people with lived experience. He notes that there are many different types of research, and that they are often published in peer-reviewed journal articles which allows for confidence in what is being reported. Dr. Ecker concludes by acknowledging the important work of grassroots advocacy organizations, particularly those led by individuals with lived experience, in providing information and resources to the general public and to policy makers. This video is 4:04 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

What do you think?

Policy makers often use point-in-time data in their decision-making about what programs will get funded in a given community, but this data often misses key populations like women, LGBTQ2S+ persons, youth, and Indigenous people. How do you think we can improve our efforts to identify these hidden populations to policy makers are aware of their unique needs? 

Featured Reading:

Canada has gone through three stages to try to reduce homelessness, including an emergency response in the 1990s, an implementation of community plans combined with Housing First initiatives, and more recently is in the beginning stages of moving towards a stronger focus on prevention (Gaetz, 2020). In this section we take a closer look at what homelessness prevention is and why it matters. Before you begin this section, please take a moment to write down your own thoughts about homelessness prevention below. 

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

Homelessness is a trauma that has long-term detrimental effects on the people who experience it. We know from research that the duration of a person’s homelessness can negatively influence their housing outcomes, which is a strong argument for prevention and early intervention that decreases the amount of time a person spends experiencing homelessness (Chen, Cooper, & Rivier, 2021). In these three videos youth homelessness researchers Dr. Naomi Nichols, Dr. Alex Abramovich, and Dr. Kaitlin Schwan speak about the negative impacts of homelessness and how difficult it is to move people out after they become entrenched. 

Gaetz and Dej (2017) write that prevention not only makes sense but is standard practice in many areas of society, such as vaccinating to prevent disease or wearing a seatbelt to prevent collision fatalities. Yet, despite its benefits, the impact of prevention can be difficult to measure. How can we prove that someone would have become homeless but did not because of our efforts? This is an issue that Dr. Erin Dej and Dr. John Ecker discuss in the next two videos. 

What do you think?

One hurdle that researchers have identified with prevention is that it is difficult to measure something that does not happen, which makes it challenging to advocate for funding. If your job was to get funding for homelessness prevention efforts, what would you say to make this argument? 

One argument that can be made, is that ending people’s homelessness costs far less than our current emergency-based response. Consider this video discussion with Dr. Tim Aubry and the infographic that follows from the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness. 

We began this introductory chapter by inviting you to join in a dialogue about homelessness in Canada. Whether this was the first time you have considered homelessness in a critical way or whether you have experience of homelessness directly or indirectly, through work or volunteering, we hope that you found this chapter informative and engaging.

At the start of the chapter, we introduced you to the composite characters John, Tasha, and Raoul, who were each experiencing homelessness in their own unique way. The scenarios were presented as an entry point into thinking about the complexity of homelessness. We returned to these individuals’ stories again at the end to demonstrate how they can help us understand the foundational concepts of being trauma-informed, person-centred, socially inclusive, and situated within the social determinants of health as critical for understanding homelessness in Canada 

We then asked you to consider three questions along the way, with the guidance of leading homelessness researchers. 

First we asked, “What is homelessness?” Here we learned that homelessness is not an unusual state but rather something that happens to human beings. We were reminded to always begin our thinking with the understanding that first and foremost, we are talking about people with human rights. We explored the different types of homelessness, the reasons it occurs, and the Canadian definition of homelessness, which includes people who are at-risk. 

Next we asked, “How do we know what we know about homelessness?” This led us to answers about the importance of research, evaluation, and collecting data in ways such as through shelter usage, health administration records, and point-in-time counts. Each of these methods provides information on the scope of homelessness in Canada. In this section we also discussed the critical importance of listening to people with lived experience, in a way that authentically recognizes and respects their contribution of knowledge. 

Finally we asked, “Why does homelessness prevention matter?” In this final section, we looked at how we could reorganize our homelessness responses better by shifting towards prevention. We heard that homelessness is a traumatizing experience that has long-lasting negative impacts, and that the longer a person remains unhoused, the harder it is to move back out of homelessness. Many of the researchers questioned why we keep a system that makes people go through trauma before it steps in to help them. Instead, a framework for the prevention of homelessness was proposed as a new way of thinking and acting across public sectors. Despite the challenge of being difficult to measure, prevention was lauded as a new way forward for the good of individuals and society as a whole. 

This introductory chapter is an important first step into understanding homelessness in Canada and we thank you for joining us along the way. We look forward to seeing you again soon, as we continue to explore a new set of seemingly simple questions with complex answers in the chapters that follow. 

If you are interested in learning more about homelessness and contributing new knowledge to the field, here are some ideas you may want to consider for an Honour’s or Master’s thesis.

Ahajumobi, E. N., & Anderson, P. B. (2020). Homeless Canadians’ perspectives on homelessness in Calgary. Journal of Social, Behavioral and Health Sciences, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.5590/JSBHS.2020.14.1.08 

Benmarhnia, T., Alexander, S., Price, K., Smargiassi, A., King, N., & Kaufman, J. S. (2018). The heterogeneity of vulnerability in public health: a heat wave action plan as a case study. Critical Public Health, 28(5), 619–625. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2017.1322176 

Chen, X., Cooper, I., & Rivier, J. (2021). Homelessness prevention and determinants of housing among first-time and recurrent emergency shelter users in Canada. Housing Studies, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2020.1865520 

Dej, E., Gaetz, S., & Schwan, K. (2020). Turning off the tap: A typology for homelessness prevention. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 41(5), 397–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-020-00607-y 

Dutton, D. J., & Jadidzadeh, A. (2019). The incidence of homelessness in Canada is a population-level phenomenon: A comparison of Toronto and Calgary shelter use over time. Canadian Studies in Population, 46(2), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42650-019-00013-8 

Echenberg, H., & Munn-Rivard, L. (2020). Defining and enumerating homelessness in Canada: Background paper. Ottawa, ON: Library of Parliament. 

Fisher, A., Mago, V., & Latimer, E. (2020). Simulating the evolution of homeless populations in Canada using modified deep q-learning (MDQL) and modified neural fitted q-iteration (MNFQ) algorithms. IEEE Access, 8, 92954–92968. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2994519 

Gaetz, S., Barr, C., Friesen, A., Harris, B., Hill, C., Kovacs-Burns, K., Pauly, B., Pearce, B., Turner, A., & Marsolais, A. (2012) Canadian definition of homelessness. Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press. 

Gaetz, S. (2020). Making the prevention of homelessness a priority: The role of social innovation. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 79(2), 353–381. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajes.12328 

Gaetz, S. & Dej, E. (2017). A new direction: A framework for homelessness prevention. Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press. 

Gaetz, S., Schwan, K., Redman, M., French, D., & Dej, E. (2018). The roadmap for the prevention of youth homelessness – executive summary. A. Buchnea (Ed.). Toronto, ON: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press. 

Jadidzadeh, A., & Kneebone, R. (2018). Patterns and intensity of use of homeless shelters in Toronto. Canadian Public Policy, 44(4), 342–355. https://doi.org/10.3138/cpp.2018-013 

O’Reilly-Fleming, T. (1993). Down and out in Canada: Homeless Canadians. Toronto: Canadian Scholar’s Press. 

Oudshoorn, A., Dej, E., Parsons, C., & Gaetz, S. (2020). Evolving an evidence‐based model for homelessness prevention. Health & Social Care in the Community, 28(5), 1754–1763. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13000 

Raphael, D. (2016). Social determinants of health: A Canadian perspective, 2nd Edition. Toronto: Canadian Scholar’s Press.

Richard, L., Hwang, S. W., Forchuk, C., Nisenbaum, R., Clemens, K., Wiens, K., … Shariff, S. Z. (2019). Validation study of health administrative data algorithms to identify individuals experiencing homelessness and estimate population prevalence of homelessness in Ontario, Canada. BMJ Open, 9(10), e030221–e030221. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030221 

Rotondi, M. A., O’Campo, P., O’Brien, K., Firestone, M., Wolfe, S. H., Bourgeois, C., & Smylie, J. K. (2017). Our health counts Toronto: Using respondent-driven sampling to unmask census undercounts of an urban Indigenous population in Toronto, Canada. BMJ Open, 7(12), e018936–e018936. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-018936 

Thistle, J. (2017). Indigenous definition of homelessness in Canada. Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press. 

Trent University Homelessness Research Collective. (2019). “A good day is waking up inside.” Conversations about homelessness, housing vulnerability, and health care across the City of Kawartha Lakes and Haliburton County. ON: Trent University HRC.  

Turner, A., Albanese, T., & Pakeman, K. (2017). Discerning “functional and absolute zero:” Defining and measuring an end to homelessness in Canada. The School of Public Policy Publications (SPPP), 10(2), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.11575/sppp.v10i0.42616 

Van den Hoonaard, W. (2018). The vulnerability of vulnerability: Why social science researchers should abandon the doctrine of vulnerability. In the Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research Ethics (pp. 305-321). SAFE Publications Ltd. 

Zhang, P., & Kteily-Hawa, R. (2018). Poetry, prose, and personhood: The art of storytelling with the homeless. Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education, 30(2), 69-79. 

In this chapter, you are invited to learn about the different meanings and experiences of homelessness within Indigenous communities, and the deep roots of colonialism upon which they have been built. While tracing these roots and their modern-day implications, you are encouraged to reflect upon three key questions guiding this chapter’s learning objectives.

1. We begin with definitions in much the same way as the “Introduction” chapter by asking, “Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness?” In this section you will read about work that has been done by Indigenous scholars to create an Indigenous definition of homelessness. You are encouraged to reflect upon the ways in which it differs from the broader Canadian definition, and on the rich history of knowledge that it provides.

2. Following the review of the Indigenous definition, our attention turns to historical issues that created – and continue to create – displacement from the land and home for Indigenous peoples. We explore the question, “How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices?” As you work through this section you are encouraged to think very deeply about the discriminatory and ignorant choices that were made in the past, through the laws that were passed, the policies that were enacted, and the government actions (and inactions) that have failed Canada’s Indigenous peoples.

3. In the final section our focus shifts to future actions we can take as a nation, through a meaningful exploration of the question, “How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness?” This section provides an opportunity for us to reflect upon the past, learn difficult lessons, and take that knowledge forward to improve the future.

As you move through this chapter it is beneficial to keep in mind that homelessness has different meanings and root causes for Indigenous communities. This chapter provides an opportunity to learn new ideas about the meaning of home and the damage that is caused when it is taken away. Read on to learn more about Indigenous homelessness in Canada.

As you learn about Indigenous homelessness and the complex ways in which it is experienced, we encourage you to begin with this real life composite scenario. Take a moment here to pause and consider this person’s experience. 

Reflection Questions

With this scenario fresh in your mind, consider these reflection questions. You may wish to record your answers before moving on to the next section. We will return to the scenario again at the end of the chapter. 

“Indigenous” is a broad term used to reflect the three distinct cultural groups of status and non-status First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples. We use this term throughout this section, and throughout this book, to refer to these diverse cultures and peoples, with the recognition that there are many similarities and also many differences in their experiences. Within the context of this chapter, we are focusing more on the similarities that arise around homelessness. We begin with the question of how Indigenous homelessness is defined. Do people who are Indigenous experience homelessness in the same way and for the same reasons as settler-colonials (i.e. non-Indigenous people) do? If you think they do not, what are the differences? Before you continue through the material of this chapter, we encourage you to take a moment and record your thoughts below.

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

Home and homemaking are central concepts within an Indigenous worldview, and we cannot even begin to understand the high rates of homelessness within Indigenous communities without them. According to Bowra and Mashford-Pringle (2021) Indigenous conceptualizations of home extend beyond physical and social environments to include relationships that connect a person to all that surrounds them such as people, plants, animals, insects, and land as well as ancestors, stories, language, songs, and traditions. They further note that home has physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual attachments, and that homemaking practices have direct and significant implications for the health and well–being of Indigenous peoples (Bowra & Mashford-Pringle, 2021). In the next video rural homelessness researcher, Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff, speaks more about the meanings of home within Indigenous cultures. 

Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff: Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff shares a memory of an Indigenous student who told her that within her culture home is more about a feeling of belonging and being connected than it is about being attached to a particular dwelling place. Dr. Waegemakers Schiff states that outside Indigenous communities there is less understanding and awareness of home as belonging to the land. For this reason, she argues, home and belonging need to be defined by Indigenous peoples by and for themselves. This video is 1:13 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Waegemakers Schiff raises the critical points that Indigenous conceptualizations of home – and by extension homelessness – must be defined by Indigenous persons and that people who are not Indigenous lack the cultural and spiritual awareness to truly understand. We, as authors, were humbly reminded of this in relation to how we posed the question. We asked, “Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness?” rather than simply, “How is Indigenous homelessness defined?” We acknowledge here our mistake of setting up Indigenous homelessness in relation to settler-colonial homelessness. You will notice that we have used this question in its original form, as it was the question we posed to the researchers we spoke to. It is our hope that as you read this section, and encounter the question, it will spark a reminder that Indigenous homelessness must not be framed in relation to settler homelessness but rather be considered as its own unique cultural experience. We discuss this further with Dr. Rebecca Schiff, who works closely with rural and Indigenous communities in northern Ontario.

Dr. Rebecca Schiff: Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? 

In this video Dr. Rebecca Schiff questions why Indigenous homelessness would be defined in relation to settler homelessness, noting that this dichotomy creates discourses that are not productive in moving towards reconciliation. In considering how Indigenous peoples might experience homelessness in ways that are unique, she identifies a range of issues related to colonial structures, histories of colonialism, and intergenerational trauma. Dr. Schiff concludes by explaining that Indigenous homelessness is not about having a roof but rather about a relationship with the land. This video is 4:31 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

As we have seen, Indigenous homelessness is a unique experience that is situated within Indigenous conceptualizations of home and homemaking practices. In the next video, Jessica Rumboldt explains that while we can consider the typology of homelessness that was reviewed in the Introductionchapter, taking an Indigenous worldview helps to show how Indigenous homelessness is defined in much broader ways.

Jessica Rumboldt: Considering Indigenous and settler definitions of homelessness 

In this video, Jessica Rumboldt reviews the definition of homelessness produced by the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness, including the typology that ranges from being unsheltered, emergency sheltered, provisionally accommodated, and at-risk of homelessness. She notes that it is important to recognize there is no one set experience that people have, but rather a range of experiences. Taking an Indigenous worldview helps us to see how Indigenous homelessness may be understood differently. Rumboldt notes that individuals, families, and communities who are separated from land, water, location, family, kin, social networks, language, and culture can be recognized as experiencing homelessness. On a cultural, spiritual, emotional, and physical level, Indigenous people facing various forms of homelessness are unable to reconnect with their Indigeneity and lost relationships. This video is 3:18 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

The Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada, produced by Thistle in consultation with Indigenous communities, has become a widely influential and highly regarded document. Thistle (2017) begins by discussing home and homelessness in an Indigenous context, situated within historical practices. He then discusses the 12 dimensions of Indigenous homelessness in Canada, which include: [1] historic displacement, [2] contemporary geographic separation, [3] spiritual disconnection, [4] mental disruption and imbalances, [5] cultural disintegration and loss, [6] overcrowding, [7] relocation and mobility, [8] going home, [9] nowhere to go, [10] escaping or evading harm, [11] emergency crisis, and [12] climatic refugee homelessness. The graphic summary below provides an overview of these 12 dimensions. 

Click the image below to open a new window and view the full infographic, “The 12 Dimensions of Indigenous Homelessness” by the Homeless Hub. (NOTE: The infographic will appear too small to read when it first opens. Please click on it to zoom in and scroll up/down to view the full infographic). 

The Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada has helped to create a more culturally appropriate guide for defining and understanding homelessness through an Indigenous worldview. This definition was raised by many of the researchers we spoke to. In the next set of videos, Dr. Erin Dej, Dr. John Ecker, and Dr. Abe Oudshoorn each situate this document as being central for learning about Indigenous homelessness. 

Dr. Erin Dej: The Indigenous definition of homelessness 

In this video, Dr. Erin Dej notes that there is an Indigenous definition of homelessness in Canada that discusses 12 dimensions, as they relate to the loss of all my relations, such as through disconnection from land, language, culture, and kin. Dr. Dej explains that the Indigenous definition is not about whether a person has a roof over their head, but rather offers a more holistic understanding of what not having a home means. This video is 0:57 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. John Ecker: Is Indigenous Homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. John Ecker credits Jesse Thistle for producing an Indigenous definition of homelessness, through deep consultations with Indigenous peoples across Canada. He notes that the definition extends beyond the loss of housing to focus on spiritual, familial, cultural, and emotional elements. Dr. Ecker argues this definition helps to move our thinking beyond traditional westernized understandings of homelessness, towards a more holistic way of thinking. This video is 0:50 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Abe Oudshoorn: Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Abe Oudshoorn argues that Indigenous homelessness is defined differently, in a formal way, and that this is important because the causes and subsequent responses are particular in working with Indigenous peoples. He notes that having a distinct definition helps provide a theoretical foundation for understanding why Indigenous homelessness occurs and what can be done about it. This video is 1:03 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

At this point, we invite you to pause and review the Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada in full, as this section’s featured reading. 

Featured Reading:

Thistle, J. (2017.) Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada. Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press 

We have seen that Indigenous experiences of homelessness are rooted in historical understandings of home, homemaking practices, and all my relations. Without comparing Indigenous to settler homelessness, we must remain aware that settler-colonial practices are the cause of Indigenous homelessness. Colonization and displacement from land, culture, language, and identity are at the root of why Indigenous homelessness occurs. According to Greenwood and Lindsay (2019), “Indigenous knowledge and Indigenous health are both deeply rooted in the land – nurturing and protecting both requires nurturing and protecting the land” (pg.84). As this suggests, Indigenous understandings of health and wellness are not located in biological factors but rather intimately tied to community, land, culture, and family – all of which have been disrupted by colonizing practices (de Leeuw, S., Greenwood, M., & Farrales, 2021). Rural homelessness researcher Dr. Bill O’Grady discusses the historical context as well as how we see its effects in modern day, such as through the disproportionate impact of climate change on Indigenous communities. 

Dr. Bill O’Grady: Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. William [Bill] O’Grady draws on the work of Indigenous scholars from recent years and explains that Indigenous homelessness is different because it is not defined simply as lacking a structure for habitation, but rather is understood more broadly. He identifies the role of historic displacement as a starting point in understanding how Indigenous peoples have been removed from their lands. Dr. O’Grady notes that multiple interrelated factors are important to consider, including colonial control, spiritual disconnection, and cultural disintegration and loss. He explains that some Indigenous peoples migrate to urban areas but are not well-served by the non-Indigenous housing and programs available, and that if they return to their community after a period of time they may be thought of as an outsider. Dr. O’Grady draws our attention to the risk of intimate partner violence as a cause of homelessness in general that also impacts Indigenous communities. He concludes by discussing the ways climate change has had a particularly negative effect on many Indigenous peoples’ livelihoods and cultural practices. This video is 4:36 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

What do you think?

Climate change is having a disproportionately negative impact on northern Indigenous communities. Have you previously considered the impact of climate change on Indigenous communities? What impact do you think climate change is having on northern Indigenous communities’ long-term prospects for livelihoods and housing security? 

We encourage you to consider these questions as you watch this documentary (24:11) on the effects of climate change, which was created by the Cree Nation of Mistissini. 

A team of researchers reviewed the literature on impacts of climate change and found that people experiencing homelessness are disproportionately exposed to climatic events, their physical and mental health is likely to be negatively impacted, and that implementing structural changes like green infrastructure might help offset some of these outcomes (Bezgrebelna et al., 2021). There are clear health and social implications related to climate change that negatively impact housing security for marginalized individuals (Kidd, Greco, & McKenzie, 2021). Dr. Sean Kidd has been part of this research, analyzing the impact of climate change. In the next video he speaks about the impact for northern Indigenous communities. 

Dr. Sean Kidd: Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Sean Kidd directs us towards the definition of Indigenous homelessness developed by Jesse Thistle in consultation with Indigenous communities. Dr. Kidd argues that the terms house and home are not synonymous but that we are not always great at unpacking the differences between these terms. For many Indigenous peoples, the concept of home is deeply connected to land. Dr. Kidd notes that by reviewing the work of Indigenous scholars we can see how for First Nations, Métis, and Inuit communities, the ideas of home and homelessness are deeply rooted in a diverse range of histories and cultures. There is a historical lens to Indigenous understandings of homelessness based in colonization, genocidal violence, and the atrocities that stretch back in time in terms of what has been taken away. Dr. Kidd concludes by drawing our attention to climate change as a current form of land displacement, disproportionately impacting Inuit and far north communities, where people are losing their homes and livelihoods because of pollution they did not create. This video is 5:50 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Indigenous homelessness is defined and experienced in many different ways. A theme that emerges throughout this book is that there is no one size fits all approach for understanding homelessness. This is true of Indigenous homelessness as well. We need guiding definitions and understandings, but it is also critical to remember that people and communities will be impacted by homelessness in their own unique ways. We conclude this section with a reminder of this message that emerged in our conversations with Indigenous homelessness scholar, Jessica Rumboldt. 

Jessica Rumboldt: Diverse understandings of Indigenous homelessness 

In this video, Jessica Rumboldt cites the work of Jesse Thistle and other Indigenous scholars to define Indigenous understandings of homelessness. She notes that answering this question and forming a definition requires engagement with different voices and experiences, and that there is no one size fits all approach. Rumboldt argues that to address the question of whether homelessness is defined differently, we must acknowledge the understandings of what home looks like, what it means, and how the perception of home impacts the state of homelessness. She concludes that we must engage with Indigenous communities to better understand the unique ways homelessness is defined and experienced. This video is 1:30 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Podcast: Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness? (32:37)

Click the link below to listen to all of the researchers answer the question “Is Indigenous homelessness defined differently than settler homelessness?” in audio format on our podcast!

In the previous section we considered the ways Indigenous homelessness is defined. Alberton et al., (2020) have noted that Indigenous peoples are oppressed in multiple ways and that intersecting sites of oppression increase the risk of Indigenous peoples becoming homeless in Canada. In this section we take a closer look at some of the sources of that oppression. Most notably, we consider how on–going colonizing practices create homelessness and serve to reproduce it within Indigenous communities over generations. Before continuing to the material in this section, we encourage you to pause here and reflect on this question. How do you think the causes of Indigenous homelessness are rooted in on-going colonizing practices? You may use the space below to write as little or as much as you wish to record your thoughts. 

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

In the previous section, we asked you to read the Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada, in which Jesse Thistle (2017) wrote that it is time for Canadians to face some hard truths. We begin this section with the indisputable hard truth that Indigenous homelessness exists because of colonization. Prior to this time, no Indigenous person was homeless, as Jessica Rumboldt explains in the next video. 

Jessica Rumboldt: The lack of homelessness in the pre-contact era 

In this video, Jessica Rumboldt quotes scholars who explain that in the pre-contact era, before the influence of Europeans, no Cree person was homeless. She notes that society was egalitarian, everything was shared, and people were cared for and included through large extended families. Rumboldt explains that through colonization, traditional homelands and legal access to traditional homelands have been taken away, leaving a race of people homeless on a macro level. She concludes that Indigenous ceremonial traditions and cultural institutions that contribute to what constitutes a home, such as ritual languages and matriarchy, have been targeted by colonial powers. This video is 1:34 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Colonizing Indigenous peoples’ homeland has displaced these communities and led to mass-scale homelessness over generations. We see the effects of colonization on Reserve lands that exist today. We present below a video in which Robert Laboucane briefly discusses the history of how Reserves were created in Canada. 

Quote Source

We have seen that within an Indigenous worldview, home is not about a physical place but rather a relation to the land. Through colonization, that land was taken away and turned into private property. In the next video, Dr. Naomi Nichols explains how racist state formation policies have benefited white settlers at the cost of exploiting Indigenous peoples and their land. 

Dr. Naomi Nichols: Long-standing colonial policies 

In this video, Dr. Naomi Nichols argues that we must acknowledge the fundamental intersection between colonization, private property ownership, land stealing, and the dislocation and entrapment of Indigenous people in Reserve territories. She explains that white settlers in particular will have to let go of exploitative practices that have benefitted them at the expense of others. Rather than attributing property ownership to hard work, Dr. Nichols clarifies that racist state formation policies that dictate who can own land, vote, and act as citizens are at the root of why some people have profited while others have not. This video is 1:23 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Colonizing practices have created homelessness amongst Indigenous communities by exploiting them and their lands, for the benefit of white settlers. This is one of the difficult truths that we must face in this chapter. In the following episode of The Agenda with Steve Paikinfrom 2017 entitled, “Indigenous Communities: Surviving Canada” panelists have a riveting debate about the state’s current complicity in keeping Indigenous communities in crisis to exploit their natural resources. We invite you now to watch this video and consider what the panelists say about how the causes of Indigenous homelessness are rooted in on-going colonizing practices. 

What do you think?

After watching this debate, where do you stand on the issue of whether Canada is intentionally keeping Indigenous communities in crisis to facilitate the exploitation of their resources? What point or argument stood out the most to you from this debate? 

The effects of colonization are clear in Canada today. Historical actions and decisions – like displacing people from their land and culture – still exist today in our modern laws and system of governance. In the next two videos, Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff and Dr. Rebecca Schiff speak about the immensely detrimental impact of these laws on Indigenous peoples today. 

Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff: How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices? 

In this video, Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff reflects on the historical migration of predominantly British individuals to Canada and the subsequent legal actions that pushed Indigenous peoples onto Reserves without consideration for how they would live there. She notes that today we are seeing the outcomes of these horrible and dehumanizing decisions, and that these policies have led us exactly where we are now. Dr. Waegemakers Schiff concludes that undoing this history is going to be a huge challenge. This video is 1:39 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Rebecca Schiff: How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices? 

In this video, Dr. Rebecca Schiff explains that there are complex threads of colonization that intersect in many ways in the lives of Indigenous peoples. She notes examples such as residential schools, the 60s/70s scoop, current scoop, foster care, and the way that the Indian Act controls Indigeneity, location, identity, sovereignty, and self-governance for Indigenous peoples. Dr. Schiff argues that the current pathways into homelessness, such as through correctional systems, child welfare, and mental health and/or substance use challenges are secondary and rooted in colonial systems and structures. Dr. Schiff concludes that we need to dismantle these structures and move towards greater self-governance and sovereignty for Indigenous peoples, in order to eliminate all of the secondary causes that contribute to homelessness. This video is 2:30 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

On-going colonizing practices have removed Indigenous peoples from their land and separated them from their families and cultures. We see this clearly with the state’s removal of children from Indigenous families in the past, such as through the 60s scoop, and in the present through high rates of child welfare involvement. As a population, Indigenous people are at a much higher risk of being involved with child welfare systems, and this involvement has been found to be the strongest predictor of subsequent visible homelessness (Alberton et al., 2020). In a northern Ontario-based study, all of the participants reported having multiple and intergenerational experiences of family separation resulting from child welfare involvement, placement in residential schools, and the death of family members, resulting in lifelong mental health and addictions struggles (Shaikh & Rawal, 2019). In this section’s featured reading, we invite you to reflect upon, “My life story, my youth” written by Rose Henry who was removed from the care of her residential school survivor parents during the 60s scoop. She shares her personal narrative on the impact these colonial traumas have had throughout her life. 

Featured Reading:

Henry, R. (2015). My life story, my youth. In Inclusion Working Group, Canadian Observatory on Homelessness (Eds.). Toronto, ON: Homeless Hub. Chapter 6:  My Life Story My Youth.pdf 

Jessica Rumboldt: Indigenous youth homelessness and colonizing institutional practice 

In this video, Jessica Rumboldt discusses research that shows Indigenous homelessness results from the breakdown of relationships rooted in historic processes of colonization. Indigenous youth have taken the brunt of these Canadian nation-state building projects, such as residential schools and the child welfare system, which have traumatized generations of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit communities. This video is 1:11 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Sean Kidd: How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices? 

In this video, Dr. Sean Kidd discusses results of the second national survey of young people accessing homelessness support services. He notes that there are several findings unique to Inuit, Métis, or First Nation respondents. Dr. Kidd identifies child protection as having a longstanding history with multi-generational impacts for these youth in a way that is different than other populations of young people. He further discusses how the survey shows different risk profiles for Inuit, First Nations, and Métis identified young people born and raised on Reserve, but also notes the survey does not speak enough to the resilience these young people have. Dr. Kidd directs us to the work of Indigenous scholars to learn more. This video is 2:49 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Kidd raises an important point, that in the discussion about horrors and traumas of colonization, we must recognize the strength of these survivors. Researchers in Winnipeg have found that Indigenous youth experiencing homelessness, who had been involved in child welfare, needed to be seen as resourceful and contributing members of the community (Brown, Knol, Prevost-Derbecker, & Andrushko, 2007). These youth also spoke about their need for on-going support from friends and family, and wanting to have a safe, nurturing, and permanent place to call home (Brown et al., 2007). We encourage you to consider the strength of these Indigenous youth as you watch the video below entitled, “Here and Now Youth Homelessness in Winnipeg.” 

Dr. Nick Falvo: How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices? 

In this video, Dr. Nick Falvo argues that the housing needs of Indigenous people are different than the housing needs of non-Indigenous people. He points to the outcomes within a local non-profit housing provider and explains that right from intake, processes may be set up in a way that does not meet the needs of Indigenous tenants. Dr. Falvo discusses his research with this organization’s tenants, Knowledge Keepers, and Elders. He points to ways that housing providers can improve orientation and programming to be more culturally appropriate for Indigenous tenants. Dr. Falvo notes these changes will require money, partnerships with Indigenous organizations, and the will to implement them. This video is 3:44 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

You can learn more about this research here:

Podcast: How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices? (16:06)

Click the link below to listen to all of the researchers answer the question “How are the causes of Indigenous homelessness rooted in on-going colonizing practices?” in audio format on our podcast!

After learning about how the causes of Indigenous homelessness are deeply rooted in on-going colonizing practices, we believe it should be clear that there are no quick fixes that will instantly solve this issue. In asking the question, “How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness?” we are very aware that any solutions will take time. However, we are also aware that beginning is the first step. We will not get anywhere if we do not begin somewhere. This is a daunting question but, just like we have asked of ourselves and you as learners through this chapter, we must approach it with the recognition it is difficult and will involve some hard truths. Yet, this section also contains some very inspiring ways forward. Before you work through the material, we ask that you pause here and record some of your own thoughts on how we can begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness.  

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

Jessica Rumboldt: The need for on-going open and vulnerable discussions 

In this video, Jessica Rumboldt argues that addressing Indigenous homelessness is a continuous process that requires ongoing commitment, with respectful and mindful consideration of the various communities and unique individuals involved. She notes that engagement is a key component, such as with Indigenous communities, people with lived experience of homelessness, persons living on and off Reserve, and those inside and outside the sector. Rumboldt argues that it is through open and vulnerable discussions that we can move forward, and that we must work collaboratively rather than in silos. She concludes by discussing a report she and her colleagues created on behalf of the Assembly of First Nations that explores many issues and recommendations related to Indigenous homelessness. This video is 3:48 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Spotlight #1:

Dr. Abe Oudshoorn: How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Abe Oudshoorn argues that decolonization is not just about thinking and learning, but rather action that involves consideration of the land. He notes that while it is important we learn, such as through Truth and Reconciliation, we must also acknowledge that the essential element of the colonization process has been the taking away of traditional lands. Dr. Oudshoorn warns that if we do not consider land as the starting point, we are going to end up replicating processes used to address settler forms of homelessness, which are not sufficient. This video is 2:33 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff: How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Jeannette Waegemakers Schiff argues that apologies are just words and that actions have more meaning. She challenges us to ask hard questions, such as when are we going to give every Reserve clean drinking water and proper housing? Are we willing to admit that housing on Reserves has been built with cheap materials and poor construction? Dr. Waegemakers Schiff concludes by noting that many people do not want to believe the conditions on Reserves are real because they are so horrible. This video is 1:39 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

We have seen throughout this chapter that Indigenous homelessness is about more than the loss of a house, it is about the loss of land and relations. Indigenous communities have been displaced from the free use of land and placed on Reserves, often in rural, remote, and/or northern regions. This is a modern–day practice, as much as an historical one. Ballard, Coughlin, and Martin (2020) have written about a 2011 human-made flood that displaced 17 First Nation communities in the Interlake region of Manitoba, creating forced displacement and resulting in premature death, worsening chronic illness, depression, and loneliness (Ballard, Coughlin, & Martin, 2020). Four years later First Nations Elders held a gathering in Winnipeg to discuss ways to heal, and they engaged in a participatory research project to record their perspectives and recommendations towards reconciliation and minoayawin (well-being). The Elders’ insights into their communities healing involved strategies to: forgive, stand united, promote self-determination, reclaim cultural identity, and connect with the land (Ballard et al., 2020). The video below is one such recording, of Elder Maryjane Sinclair from Little Saskatchewan First Nation sharing her perspective on returning home after her community’s displacement. 

Spotlight #2:

Dr. Nick Falvo: How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Nick Falvo notes that decolonization starts with representation and consideration of who is at the table. He argues that many organizations have a Board of Directors that does not reflect the people they are helping, and that they must work to enhance the presence of Indigenous people at all levels. Dr. Falvo states that looking to Indigenous people for guidance and listening to the knowledge they share is critical, and that it must be done in culturally respectful ways such as offering tobacco as a gift. This video is 2:56 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

What do you think?

Dr. Falvo argues that decolonization begins with representation. Why do you think it is important for Indigenous people to see other Indigenous people represented in various roles in a social service agency and more broadly throughout society? 

Thistle and Smylie (2020) have written that responses to Indigenous homelessness must be led by Indigenous peoples and grounded in Indigenous worldviews, because the life experience of an Indigenous person with lived experience of homelessness is an invaluable gift that can enrich communities and teach providers. In much the same way that we, as authors, have grappled with writing about Indigenous homelessness as non-Indigenous people, so too have the non-Indigenous researchers we spoke to. For example, in the next two videos, Dr. Rebecca Schiff and Dr. Sean Kidd each draw on their research to speak about the need to end family displacement practices, but also note their limitations in answering this question as non-Indigenous people. 

Dr. Rebecca Schiff: How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness? 

In this video, Dr. Rebecca Schiff questions the role of white people in identifying solutions to decolonize society. She notes that getting rid of the Indian Act is an important step and that keeping Indigenous children with their families is best, regardless of whether they are removed by child welfare or are forced to migrate to larger cities to complete school. Dr. Schiff concludes by discussing the complexity of ending racism, as something that occurs across society and in our institutions, such as related to housing, corrections, and health care. This video is 4:13 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

Dr. Sean Kidd: Supporting Indigenous youth through engagement with their culture and Elders 

In this video, Dr. Sean Kidd explains that the experience of homelessness can impact a person’s sense of identity and self-worth. Building resiliency involves creating or reclaiming a self-concept that resists stigmatizing messages. Dr. Kidd notes that for Indigenous youth, identifying with their cultures of origin can be a power tool in that effort. He notes that there are some organizations that have been helping to connect these youth with Elders, and to find pathways for engaging with their cultures, histories, families, and communities. Dr. Kidd notes that while we may want to think of Canada as a safe place, there are many forms of discrimination, and that First Nations, Métis, and Inuit youth may experience multiple and interconnected types. He concludes that the best way to learn more about these issues is not to listen to a white man, but to seek out resources and to speak to young people directly. This video is 6:08 in length and has closed captions available in English. 

The research is clear that child welfare involvement is higher amongst Indigenous youth, which is an on-going form of colonization and contributes to the high rates of homelessness amongst this population (Dunn, 2019; Kidd et al., 2019, 2021; Shaikh & Rawal, 2019). In this section’s featured reading, Stewart (2019) explores how a social-constructivist approach to family counselling can be used as a means of working towards decolonization in clinical practice. 

Featured Reading:

Stewart, S. (2019). Family counselling as decolonization: Exploring an Indigenous social-constructivist approach in clinical practice. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 14(1), 43-56. 

Spotlight #3:

Podcast: How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness? (22:27)

Click the link below to listen to all of the researchers answer the question “How can we begin to decolonize society and decrease Indigenous homelessness??” in audio format on our podcast!

Recall the Four Foundational Concepts

Research with Indigenous communities must be guided and approved by Indigenous Elders at all stages. As such we do not offer student research ideas here. As non-Indigenous persons doing so would not only be inappropriate, but it would be deeply disrespectful. Instead, we would like to offer these research guides created by Indigenous communities as suggested readings. 

Alberton, A. M., Angell, G. B., Gorey, K. M., & Grenier, S. (2020). Homelessness among Indigenous peoples in Canada: The impacts of child welfare involvement and educational achievement. Children and Youth Services Review, 111, 104846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104846

Ansloos, J. P., & Wager, A. C. (2020). Surviving in the cracks: A qualitative study with indigenous youth on homelessness and applied community theatre. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 33(1), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2019.1678785

Ballard, M., Coughlin, J., & Martin, D. (2020). Reconciling with Minoaywin: First Nations Elders’ advice to promote healing from forced displacement. Canadian Journal on Aging, 39(2), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0714980819000412

Bezgrebelna, M., McKenzie, K., Wells, S., Ravindran, A., Kral, M., Christensen, J., Stergiopoulos, V., Gaetz, S., & Kidd, S. A. (2021). Climate change, weather, housing precarity, and homelessness: A systematic review of reviews. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18, 5812. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115812

Bingham, B., Moniruzzaman, A., Patterson, M., Distasio, J., Sareen, J., O’Neil, J., & Somers, J. M. (2019a). Indigenous and non-Indigenous people experiencing homelessness and mental illness in two Canadian cities: A retrospective analysis and implications for culturally informed action. BMJ Open, 9(4), e024748–e024748. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024748

Bingham, B., Moniruzzaman, A., Patterson, M., Sareen, J., Distasio, J., O’Neil, J., & Somers, J. M. (2019b). Gender differences among Indigenous Canadians experiencing homelessness and mental illness. BMC Psychology, 7(1), 57–57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-019-0331-y

Bono, K. (2019). The faces of Indigenous homelessness: The perpetual Inuit housing struggle. Master’s Thesis. McGill University.

Bowra, A., & Mashford-Pringle, A. (2021). More than a structure: Exploring the relationship between Indigenous homemaking practices and wholistic wellbeing. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2020.100007

Brown, J., Knol, D., Prevost-Derbecker, S., & Andrushko, K. (2007). Housing for Aboriginal youth in the inner city of Winnipeg. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(2), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.7202/1069464ar

Caplan, R., Nelson, G., Distasio, J., Isaak, C., Edel, B., Piat, M., Macnaughton, E., Kirst, M., Patterson, M., Aubry, T., Mulligan, S., & Goering, P. (2020). Indigenous and non‐Indigenous parents separated from their children and experiencing homelessness and mental illness in Canada. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(8), 2753–2772. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22455

Cunningham, J. (2019). Towards a grounded understanding of the forms of homelessness experienced by Indigenous women in Canada. Recherches amérindiennes au Québec, 49(3), 29. https://doi.org/10.7202/1074538ar

De Leeuw, S., Greenwood, M., & Farrales, M. (2021). Indigeneity and wellness: Critically understanding the health of Indigenous peoples and communities. In K. Chamberlain & A. Lyons (Eds.). Routledge International Handbook of Critical Issues in Health and Illness. New York: Routledge International Handbooks.

Distasio, J., Zell, S., & Snyder, M. (2018). At home in Winnipeg: Localizing housing first as a culturally responsive approach to understanding and addressing urban Indigenous homelessness. Winnipeg: Institute of Urban Studies.

Dunn, K. (2019). A comparative analysis of Indigenous and non-Indigenous homeless youth in Canada. Master’s Thesis. University of Guelph.

Falvo, N. (2021). Improving housing stability among Indigenous residents at horizon housing. Calgary: Nick Falvo Consulting. FINAL_Housing-Stability-for-Indigenous-Residents_Report.pdf

Feir, D. L., & Akee, R. (2018). Estimating institutionalization and homelessness for status First Nations in Canada: A method and implications. International Indigenous Policy Journal, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2018.9.4.2

Firestone, M., Syrette, J., Jourdain, T., Recollet, V., & Smylie, J. (2019). “I feel safe just coming here because there are other Native brothers and sisters”: Findings from a community-based evaluation of the Niiwin Wendaanimak Four Winds Wellness Program. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 110(4), 404–413. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-019-00192-6

Government of Canada. (2018). Reaching home: Canada’s homelessness strategy directives. Government of Canada, Ottawa. Reaching Home: Canada’s Homelessness Strategy Directives – Canada.ca

Government of Canada. (2019). National housing strategy act. Government of Canada, Ottawa. National Housing Strategy Act (justice.gc.ca)

Greenwood, M. & Lindsay N. M. A. (2019). A commentary on land, health and Indigenous knowledge(s). Global Health Promotion, 26(3), 82-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975919831262

Henry, R. (2015). My life story, my youth. In Inclusion Working Group, Canadian Observatory on Homelessness (Eds.). Toronto, ON: Homeless Hub. Chapter 6:  My Life Story My Youth.pdf

Ion, A., Greene, J., Masching, R., Poitras, M., Brownlee, P., St. Denys, R., … Anaquod, J. (2018). Stable homes, strong families: reimagining housing policies and programs for Indigenous peoples living with and affected by HIV and AIDS in Canada. Housing and Society, 45(2), 118–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/08882746.2018.1496696

Kidd, S. A., Gaetz, S., O’Grady, B., Schwan, K., Zhao, H., Lopes, K., & Wang, W. (2021). The second national Canadian homeless youth survey: Mental health and addiction findings. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 66(10), 897-905. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743721990310

Kidd, S. A., Greco, S. & McKenzie, K. (2021). Global climate implications for homelessness: A scoping review. J Urban Health, 98, 385–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00483-1

Kidd, S., Thistle, J., Beaulieu, T., O’Grady, B., & Gaetz, S. (2019). A national study of Indigenous youth homelessness in Canada. Public Health (London), 176, 163–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2018.06.012

Kolahdooz, F., Nader, F., Yi, K. J., & Sharma, S. (2015). Understanding the social determinants of health among Indigenous Canadians: Priorities for health promotion policies and actions. Global Health Action, 8(1), 27968–27968. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v8.27968

National Action Plan. (2021). 2021 missing and murdered Indigenous women, girls, and 2SLGBTQQIA+ people national action plan: Ending violence against Indigenous women, girls, and 2SLGBTQQIA+ people. Canada.

Patrick, C. (2014). Aboriginal homelessness in Canada: A literature review. Toronto: The Canadian Observatory on Homelessness.

Pijl, E. M., & Belanger, Y. D. (2020). Lost in transition: Entering the liminal space of rural homelessness in a small prairie town. Journal of Social Distress and Homeless, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2020.1763575

Redvers, N., Nadeau, M., & Prince, D. (2020). Urban land-based healing: A northern intervention strategy. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 16(2), 322–337. https://doi.org/10.32799/ijih.v16i2.33177

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In this chapter, you are invited to consider the history of policies and politics that have led to homelessness in its current state in Canada. While tracing the winding twists and turns in the chronology, you are encouraged to reflect upon three key questions guiding this chapter’s learning objectives.

1. We begin by taking a step back in time and asking, “What housing policy existed in the past?” It is often useful to reflect upon what events came before to better contextualize and understand circumstances as they are now. The first section offers an opportunity to pause and reflect on how housing and homelessness policies were enacted historically.

2. Following the review of housing policy in the past, our attention turns to more contemporary political and policy issues by exploring the question, “Is Housing First a solution to homelessness?” Whether you are keenly familiar with the concept of Housing First already, or whether this is your first introduction, this section will offer you a unique and nuanced look at the impact Housing First has had on homelessness in Canada.

3. In the final section, our focus expands beyond Housing First to explore the question, “What is happening with housing and homelessness policy today?” There are many housing and homelessness initiatives currently underway at all levels of government and within local communities. Having worked through the two preceding parts – obtaining both knowledge about historical housing policies and a deeper understanding of Housing First – you will be well positioned to critically examine the contemporary policies being enacted in Canada today.

As you move through this chapter it is beneficial to keep in mind that homelessness exists in society because of decisions that are made by people in power. We may not be able to change the decisions that have been made in the past, but we can have an impact on the decisions that will be made in the future. Read on to learn more about where we have been and where we are now. Where we go next is up to all of us.

As you learn about homelessness and the complex ways in which it is experienced, we encourage you to begin with this real life composite scenario. Take a moment here to pause and consider this person’s experience. 

Reflection Questions

With this scenario fresh in your mind, consider these reflection questions. You may wish to record your answers before moving on to the next section. We will return to this scenario again at the end of the chapter. 

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

Featured Reading:

Chisholm, S., & Hulchanski, D. (2019). Canada’s housing story. In D. Maclennan, H. Pawson, K. Gibb, S. Chisholm, & D. Hulchanski (Eds.). SF 21: Shaping Futures Changing the Housing Story Final Report. University of Glasgow: Policy Scotland.

The lack of affordable housing today is a problem that contributes to high rates of homelessness across the country. However, we also must consider that housing is one piece of a complicated and interconnected puzzle that also requires we address poverty and the lack of financial supports in our current neoliberal state structure. Preventing and ending homelessness requires strategic investment and changes to policies and practices to address the risk factors that contribute to homelessness (Dej & Ecker, 2018). Until the underlying structural and system pieces that contribute to homelessness are addressed, we are going to continue to see high rates (Gaetz, 2010). In these next two videos, Dr. Tim Aubry and Dr. Stephen Gaetz explain how poverty, a lack of affordable housing, and neoliberal state governance are related factors that have carried forward over time. 

In this section, we considered the question, “What housing policy existed in the past?” The answer is important to know because, as we have seen, policy decisions tend to be made in response to problems created by previous policy decisions. We began our timeline around the second World War, when housing was built for people working in the war industry and for soldiers after they advocated for their needs. We saw that Canada had a strong network of social supports in the 1960s and 1970s, but that they declined with the recession of the 1980s. During this period, the federal government began to withdraw from building social housing and subsequently withdrew completely in the 1990s. These neoliberal policy decisions created conditions of extreme poverty and wealth inequality that persist. Although we may not have heard much about homelessness prior to the 1980s, we certainly feel its presence today. 

How to complete this activity and save your work: Type your response to the question in the box below. When you are done answering the question navigate to the ‘Export’ page to download and save your response. If you prefer to work in a Word document offline you can skip right to the Export section and download a Word document with this question there.

The framework of Housing First in Canada is adapted from the work of Dr. Sam Tsemberis, Founder and CEO of Pathways to Housing in New York. Before we begin our discussion of Housing First in Canada, we would like to set the stage with this brief 4-minute video in which Dr. Tsemberis outlines the core ideas of how his Pathways program began. It is important to remember as you watch this, that he is speaking about the original American program and that we will review the Canada data throughout the section that follows this video. 

In the previous section, we said that it is important to know the history of housing policy in Canada to understand our current situation. Well, here we are, saying it again (and will continue to say it in the next section!) because now that you have read the history, it will likely not surprise you to know that early forms of Housing First emerged in the 1990s. As the federal government stepped back from funding social housing and mass homelessness began to emerge, advocates realized that what people needed most was housing. Dr. Nick Falvo explains the connection between the early roots of Housing First and historical policy decisions. 

Today, much of the work around Housing First across the country is informed by the ground-breaking $110 million Mental Health Commission of Canada study known as “At Home / Chez Soi.” This project operated from 2009 to 2013 and was a coordinated effort in the five sites of Vancouver, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal, and Moncton, to evaluate Housing First outcomes compared to “Treatment as Usual” in which people accessed the existing support services available without intervention. Each location had its own focus or speciality population. According to Waegemakers Schiff and Rook (2012), by examining the approach in various political contexts, and with different populations, it had the multi-cultural dimensions needed for Canadian adoption of the Housing First approach. New data is published regularly, providing further insight into this initiative. In the video below one of the participants speaks about her experience in the study.