Title: Information Evaluation & Filtering

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Introduction

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Introduction

As future engineers, you will interact with information every day, but your information needs and access will vary over time and across different projects. While in school, you’ll need to start building your information skillset so that you’re ready to research and evaluate information effectively as a professional.

In this module you will learn:

- How to assess, examine, and evaluate the uses of information, including distinguishing between facts, values and opinions;
- How and where you can find the information you need to be successful and;
- How to evaluate and be critical of the information you find, using tools that can help you.

Land acknowledgement

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada ’s final report calls for 94 actions toward restoring a balanced relationship between Indigenous peoples and settler communities in this country.

We encourage you to not only acknowledge the traditional territory on which your institution resides, but to also ground this acknowledgement with action.

A great resource for this is Native Land. We also suggest looking at the resources provided by the Xwi7xwa Library, which is a centre for academic and community Indigenous scholarship. Its collections and services reflect Aboriginal approaches to teaching, learning, and research, and it is the only branch of an academic library in Canada that is entirely dedicated to Indigenous materials.

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What is information?

Information is defined as "knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or instruction" and may include intelligence, news, facts, or data ( Merriam-Webster , n.d.).

As this broad definition suggests, information can come in many different forms and from a variety of sources. Sometimes we use information for general news and personal entertainment. Other times, especially within the academy and as practicing engineers, we use information as evidence to back up our claims and make good decisions.

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Types of information used in engineering

Taking the time to consider what type of information you need can make it easier to know where you should start looking for that information.

In academia we distinguish between popular and academic types of information.

Please select the Popular information and Academic information note cards for more details.

- Uses everyday language.
- Is aimed at a general audience.
- Offers simplified or generalized surveys and analyses.
- May present conclusions that are not necessarily built on sound scientific knowledge.
- Does not have the same authority, depth, or academic rigor as scholarly material.
- May be written by experts or non-experts.

Sources of popular information include:

- Newspapers, magazines, trade publications, blogs (even when written by an expert);
- Reddit, Wikipedia, Stack Overflow;
- Most of the internet.

Popular information

- Uses more complex, technical language.
- Is written by experts (and often includes details about the author that helps you assess their expertise).
- Is aimed at other experts in the field.
- Will help you build a trusted foundation of knowledge.
- May have gone through a formal peer review process.

Academic information

Types of sources

Different types of information can also be found in different types of sources.

Primary sources contain information being presented for the first time, such as original research findings or designs for a patent.

Secondary sources contain summaries, interpretations, or critiques of primary information. Review articles are an example of these sources.

Tertiary sources consolidate primary and secondary information to create broad overviews like those you might find in an encyclopedia or textbook.

We will discuss these three types of sources in more detail later in the module.

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What is information evaluation?

When we interact with information, we must be able to decide if it is suitable for our intended use and trustworthy enough to guide our opinions. This critical reflection is referred to as information evaluation.

Why evaluate information as an engineer?

Chances are you already use some form of information evaluation when you encounter information in your everyday life, but as you progress through your academic career and into professional practice, the stakes get higher.

Using unreliable information to complete your class assignments will result in poorly supported or misinformed arguments and lower grades. Using unreliable information as a professional engineer could damage your professional reputation, or worse, jeopardize the safety of yourself and others.

Therefore, as a student or professional, you will need to put more time and effort into thoroughly evaluating the information you use. In this module, we will introduce systematic approaches to information evaluation that will help you work through this process.

Finding engineering information

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Finding engineering information

As a student, you have access to a wide variety of engineering-focused information. How do you find what you’re looking for?

Knowing where different types of information are commonly found can help you get a better idea of where to start looking for the information you need.

Primary / secondary / tertiary information

Engineering information can be found in primary, secondary, or tertiary sources. Let’s examine each of these more closely.

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Primary sources present information, data, or research findings for the first time. These sources are usually written by the researcher(s) who designed and conducted the research, giving us a first-hand account of what happened. This could also include information you, yourself collect.

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Examples of primary sources of engineering information may include:

- Peer-reviewed journal articles describing original research;
- Dissertations;
- Technical reports;
- Patents;
- Conference proceedings;
- Unpublished lab notes.

These sources can be a great place to find:

- Information on cutting edge discoveries.
- Descriptions and designs of inventions.
- Statistics and research data.

Primary sources

2

Secondary sources build on primary sources by describing, interpreting, evaluating, analyzing or synthesizing the findings of other studies.

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Examples of secondary sources of engineering information include:

- Literature review journal articles;
- Books;
- White papers;
- Technical documents;
- Some trade publications;
- Systematic reviews;
- News articles.

These sources can be a great place to find:

- Interpretations or criticisms of primary research.
- Summaries of everything that is known about a particular topic, based on the findings of multiple studies or reports.
- Recommendations and best practices.
- Lengthy reference lists that will help you find other sources on the topic.

Secondary sources

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Tertiary sources combine the information found in both primary and secondary sources to provide broad overviews on a range of topics.

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Examples of tertiary sources of engineering information include:

- Textbooks;
- Dictionaries;
- Encyclopedias;
- Handbooks.

These sources can be a great place to find:

- A concise summary of a topic.
- Widely agreed upon facts.
- Common terms or keywords used to talk about the subject.
- Definitions.
- Basic equations.

Tertiary sources

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Where to find it

Primary, secondary, and tertiary information is found in a wide range of resources, some that may be freely available online and others that you will have to access through the library.

For example:

An internet search is where you can find:

- Primary sources like patents and technical reports;
- Secondary sources like white papers, news articles, and technical documents;
- Tertiary sources like online encyclopedias (e.g. Wikipedia) and dictionaries.

The library is where you’ll find:

- Primary sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, patents, and conference papers;
- Secondary sources such as review articles, books, and trade publications;
- Tertiary sources such as encyclopedias, textbooks, and handbooks.

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Grey literature in engineering

Grey literature refers to information sources that are not produced by commercial publishers. Instead, grey literature authors often include agencies, organizations, and companies.

Many different types of resources fall under the category of grey literature, including:

- Government reports;
- NGO publications;
- Technical reports;
- White papers;
- Standards;
- Patents;
- Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS);
- Health organization publications;
- Conference proceedings;
- Theses and dissertations;
- Marginalized perspectives;
- Accounts of lived experiences;
- Speeches;
- Blogs;
- And more!

Check out GreyNet International’s Document types in grey literature page for more examples.

Where to find it

Because grey literature comes in so many different forms, it can also be found in a variety of different places.

Sometimes the quickest, easiest way to find documents and reports published on the internet is by using an internet search engine, like Google. Internet search engines are also a great place to find Indigenous knowledge and other diverse perspectives. Just remember that internet search engines often return a mix of reliable and unreliable information, so it’s important to carefully evaluate the information you find.

Internet search engines

Grey literature is often produced by agencies, organizations, or companies and made available to the public via the organization’s website. Think about the type of information you’re looking for and who is most likely to produce or distribute it, then try searching their website.

For example, if you’re looking for information on how medical devices are approved in Canada, the Health Canada website is a great place to search.

Organizational websites

The library

Although most grey literature is typically not available through the library, there are some exceptions. For example, your library may provide access to collections of patents, standards, dissertations, or conference proceedings.

Many institutions also maintain a repository where you can access theses, dissertations, and other works written by faculty and students.

Finally, your institution’s website is also an excellent place to find information about your program of study.

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Google & social media

Where do you start looking for information on a new topic?

Most people start their search with the tools that are easiest to use or that are the most familiar to them. Often this leads them to places like Google, Wikipedia, or social media forums like Reddit, and that’s ok! These sources are perfectly fine to consult, as long as you can identify what type of information you’ve found and can evaluate its credibility.

Please select the Google and Wikipedia and Reddit note cards for more details.

Although internet search engines like Google can be an excellent source of reliable information (like grey literature), a Google search will also return a large amount of unreliable popular information. By learning to evaluate information effectively, you can avoid unreliable information sources and make the most of the valuable information Google has to offer.

Unlike Google, Wikipedia and forums like Reddit tend to present limited overviews and specific perspectives on topics. Therefore, these sources are best used to get the general background information you need to get started searching for more comprehensive information.

Wikipedia & Reddit

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Library resources

Although it’s possible to find valuable information freely available online, it is also common for academic information to be hidden behind expensive paywalls.

While you’re in school, you can gain access to many of these paid materials for free through your university library. While you are working, your company may provide access to some of these resources, or you may be able to access them through your local public library.

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Engineering peer-reviewed literature

In engineering, peer-reviewed literature is considered an especially reliable source of information.

During the peer review process, engineering experts review an author’s work, offering feedback and suggesting changes that will improve the work prior to publication.

The review process is intended to produce higher quality research, and because of this, you may encounter instructors who prefer for you to use these sources when completing your assignments.

Materials that are commonly peer reviewed include:

- Most journal articles;
- Some books and textbooks;
- Some technical documents;
- Some conference proceedings.

Note: Although journal articles are the most common form of peer-reviewed material, some journals do not require their articles to undergo peer review.

Where to find it

The two main places you can find peer-reviewed articles are Google Scholar and your library’s databases.

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Google Scholar

Google Scholar allows you to search for scholarly information across multiple databases using a single search box. Journal articles in Google Scholar may or may not be peer-reviewed and may or may not be freely accessible. However, you can always link Google Scholar to your university library to access paywalled materials. To set this up, go to Google Scholar > Settings > Library Links.

Your library

Your university’s library subscribes to many different databases that specialize in engineering and related fields that you can use to access peer reviewed materials. Some even allow you to limit your search to show peer-reviewed sources only.

Tip!

If you aren’t sure which database to use or need help determining if a source you’ve found has been peer-reviewed, ask a librarian for help!

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Peer review in different contexts

While you’re in school, if your instructor asks you to use scholarly materials, they are most likely referring to peer-reviewed journal articles.

In a professional context, however, peer-reviewed sources may include other materials that undergo expert review, such as:

- Product designs which often undergo a design review by experts;
- Standards which go through multiple drafts and revisions by experts before being finalized;
- Patents which are granted after applications go through expert examination.

As you move from an academic to a professional context, keep in mind that outside of school, peer review is not limited to journal articles.

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Textbooks

You may be able to find physical or electronic textbooks through your university library, or you may have purchased the books yourself for current or past courses.

Textbooks are a quick an easy source of foundational information, much like Wikipedia or Reddit, only the information found in textbooks tends to be more academic.

If you are researching a new area and there are textbooks available on the topic, this is a great place to find the basic information you need to build knowledge on the topic.

As you move forward in your academic and professional careers, your old textbooks will become important reference materials that you can easily refer to when you can’t quite remember that equation, circuit, or definition you learned in school.

Check your understanding

Q: Check your knowledge

What types of engineering information can be found using an internet search engine like Google or Google Scholar? Select all that apply.
- White papers. (correct)
- Journal articles. (correct)
- Textbooks.
- Industry publications. (correct)

Standards & patents

A standard is a document that outlines guidelines or recommendations for things like product characteristics, design, performance, and management objectives ( Standards Council of Canada ).

Standards are also sometimes referred to as:

- Codes (especially building and construction standards);
- Recommended practices;
- Military specifications.

Some examples of standards include:

- ISO;
- CSA;
- IEEE.

Standards are typically owned by the organization that created them and as a result, they are rarely freely available online. Luckily, many university libraries have subscriptions to different standards packages and librarians that can help you find the standards you need.

As you transition to a professional environment, you may gain access to these standards from your company or through professional organization memberships.

A patent is a legal document designed to protect the intellectual property (ideas or designs) of an inventor or patent holder. Patent documents include information regarding who owns the rights to the invention, technical descriptions and drawings, and other claims.

Unlike standards, patents are made freely available online, usually through the intellectual property office of the invention’s country of origin. However, searching for a specific patent can be very difficult. Your university library may subscribe to specialized databases that make patent searching easier and/or offer guides or information sessions on how to search patents. Reach out to a librarian if you need help.

For more information on Canadian patents, check out the Canadian Intellectual Property Office .

Being critical of information as engineers

In engineering, being critical of information is especially important, as many oversight failures are grounded in information gaps or promoting inaccurate information.

Being critical of information does not mean you’re being negative toward it; it means you are thoughtfully examining it to see if and how it can be helpful to you. Therefore, being critical of information is an essential part of information evaluation.

As you practice being critical of information it will become something that you do automatically, but like any skillset, this takes practice. The more you practice these skills as students, the easier this will be when you begin your professional careers.

Critical Evaluation of Information

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Information evaluation methods for engineers

Evaluative frameworks are designed to remind you which characteristics you should be paying attention to when evaluating information. These methods also provide guiding questions that will help you through each stage of the evaluation.

There are multiple evaluative frameworks that you can use to critically evaluate information. In this module, we will outline RADAR and CRAAP, but feel free to choose a method that makes the most sense to you and is the easiest for you to remember.

RADAR

The RADAR framework outlines 5 criteria to consider when evaluating a source, one for each letter in RADAR.

The 5 RADAR criteria are:

Relevance

Authority

Date

Appearance & Accuracy

Reason

An appropriate information source should be relevant to your research. Take the time to make sure the information you use is meaningfully related to the work you’re doing, instead of just trying to make what you have found fit.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Why was this information created/published?

Who is the intended audience?

How is this information related to the task at hand?

How does this information help me accomplish my goals and/or answer my research question?

Guiding questions:

While you’re considering the relevance of a source, you should also be considering the other criteria in the RADAR framework at the same time. Afterall, highly relevant sources can still contain unreliable, biased, or dated information.

The information source you choose should be written by a credible author. One way to judge an author’s credibility is to think about what authority, expertise, or experience they have with a topic.

In engineering, “experts” may be scholars, professional engineers (P.Eng), people working in industry, or others with meaningful experience working with a topic. Just remember that expertise in one field does not automatically make that person an expert in other fields as well.

As you’re thinking through the questions on the Guiding questions note card, consider the type of information you’re using, the assignment you’re using it for, and your instructor’s expectations.

Who created the information? Was it one person or many people? Was it a government, corporation, or non-profit?

What is the reputation of this author? Do they do work in this field often? Who are they affiliated with?

Have they cited the important works on this topic?

Have other people cited this work or author? What did they say about it?

Does the author(s) have a P.Eng, degree, or other qualification related to this information?

Guiding questions:

Information can quickly become outdated and obsolete. Therefore, it is important to note the date or currency of a source to make sure you aren’t supporting your arguments with facts that have been superseded by new research or recent events.

Note: Not all assignments or disciplines require the most current information. Older materials can show the origins of a theory, idea, or discovery and be useful for historical research.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

When was the information created or last updated?

Is currency important to this question, project, or context?

Could this information be outdated or superseded by something more recent?

Is this a landmark piece of work that is well known in engineering?

Could this work be useful for historical context or comparison?

Guiding questions:

The appearance of a source can help you identify what type of source it is and can give you clues about its context.

The accuracy of a source is important because errors and false information will lead you in the wrong direction and could distort your reasoning. Presenting inaccurate information undermines your own credibility.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Is the information presented professionally and/or academically?

Are there clear editing errors such as spelling, grammar, or typos?

Does the author use outside sources to strengthen claims? Are the outside sources reliable?

Does the presentation of the information follow the appropriate scholarly or professional formats?

Has the information been peer-reviewed?

Guiding questions:

Appearance & Accuracy

The reason a source was created is important to consider because all information is created to serve a purpose. That purpose might be to educate, entertain, or to sell a product or point of view. Being aware of the reason a source was created may help you identify sources that provide inaccurate, false, or biased information.

Different points of view can still be valid, as long as they are based on good reasoning and careful use of evidence.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Why has the information been made available? To inform, sell, educate, entertain, or convince?

How has the information been presented? A book, an academic journal, a popular magazine, a website or a trade periodical?

What type of information is this? Is it new research or an experiment? A standard or specification? A technical report? Marketing information or a press release?

Who has funded the research or produced the information? Is it proprietary information? Is this clearly stated?

Has the information been written with an objective, impartial point of view? How is it biased?

If it’s a research paper, has the author described their methodology and data? Is it appropriate?

Guiding questions:

Adapted from Mandalios (2013).

CRAAP

The CRAAP test covers many of the same criteria as RADAR using slightly different terminology, to create a new acronym.

The 5 CRAAP Criteria are:

Currency

Relevance

Authority

Accuracy

Purpose

Considering how current a source is can help you avoid using outdated information. This corresponds to “date” in RADAR.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

When was the information published or posted?

Has the information been revised or updated?

Does your topic/assignment/project require current information, or will older sources be useful as well?

If it’s an electronic source, are the links still functional?

Guiding questions:

It is important to ensure the information you’ve found fits your needs or is relevant to your research.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?

Who is the intended audience?

Is it at the appropriate level for your needs (not too simple or too advanced)?

Have you consulted other sources before choosing this one?

Guiding questions:

The author of the information should have expertise in the area or experience working with the topic, concept, or practice being described.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Who is the author, publisher, source, or sponsor?

What are the author’s credentials, organizational affiliations, or other qualifications for writing on this topic?

Is there contact information available, like a publisher or email address?

Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? For example, in the United States, .edu is used by educational organizations and .gov is used by government organizations.

Note: Canadian educational and government organizations do not follow this convention.

Guiding questions:

You should also be thinking about how reliable, truthful, and correct the information seems. In the RADAR section, we learned that one way to assess this is by paying attention to the appearance of the source.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Where does this information come from? Who produced it?

Is the information supported by evidence? Are other sources referenced?

Has the information been reviewed by other experts?

Can you verify any of the information with other sources?

Does the language or tone used seem objective?

Are there spelling, grammar, or typographical errors?

Guiding questions:

Thinking about the reason the information exists can help alert you to its possible biases. This corresponds to “reason” in RADAR.

Please select the Guiding questions note card for more details.

Is the purpose of the information to teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?

Do the authors or sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?

Does the information appear to be fact, opinion, or propaganda?

Is it written in an objective or impartial tone?

How might this information be biased?

Guiding questions:

Adapted from Meriam Library (n.d.).

Critique

In some extreme situations, you may have been able to eliminate an untrustworthy source while you were applying the evaluative framework. For example, this may be the case if you get to the “Authority” criteria and find the author has no qualifications or significant experience with the topic.

However, in most cases the decision to use or discard a source will not be so obvious. This is when taking a step back to weigh the different criteria in relation to each other becomes important. This critical reflection is what defines the critique stage of the critical evaluation of information.

Although critically evaluating information and using the evaluative frameworks may seem like a bulky, time-consuming process, as you practice these skills they will become more intuitive. This is why it is so important for you to start building this skillset now, as students, so that the process is almost automatic by the time you start your professional careers.

Check your understanding

Q: Check your knowledge

Both RADAR and CRAAP draw your attention to which criteria? Select all that apply:
- Whether or not a source is relevant to your research. (correct) (All answers are correct.)
- How timely or current the information is. (correct) (All answers are correct.)
- The reason or purpose the information was created for. (correct) (All answers are correct.)
- The author’s expertise or experience with the topic. (correct) (All answers are correct.)

Information evaluation in groups

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Information evaluation in groups

Many of the projects you complete while in school and as a professional engineer will require you to work as a member of a group or team. The information the group uses impacts the final product, therefore, it is the responsibility of each group member to ensure the information the group uses is credible and relevant to the project.

Your group’s information evaluation strategy will depend on the type of project you’re working on and the group’s preferences. You may decide to have one or two people take care of gathering information, while others evaluate what they found, or the group may decide that it’s easier for the person who found the information to evaluate it as well.

Whichever way you decide to split up these tasks, the next step will be deciding how the group will communicate their findings and decision making with one another. This communication strategy should ensure that everyone is aware of and able to articulate how the information used is related to the project.

Tracking & sharing information in engineering

Developing a strategy for tracking and sharing information is the best way to make sure all the members of your team are on the same page.

Two common knowledge management approaches used in engineering are:

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Codification strategy

This strategy involves writing down what is known and storing it somewhere that everyone in the group can access (McMahon et al., 2004).

In the context of information evaluation, this might include using a shared document or citation manager to record which sources have been found, how they were evaluated, and how they are related to the project or task.

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Personalization strategy

This strategy favors sharing information through interpersonal contact, or talking with one another (McMahon et al., 2004).

In the context of information evaluation, this might include regular group meetings where everyone shares what they’ve found, how they assessed it, and how it is related to the project.

Depending on your group and the type of project you’re working on, you may choose to use either strategy, or some combination of the two. Whichever strategy you choose, just remember that the final goal is to have everyone on the team aware of what information has been collected and how it relates to the project.

Final thoughts

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Final thoughts

In engineering, the information you will need to complete your academic studies and that you will use as you enter your professional careers will come from a variety of sources.

Where you found the information becomes less important if you are able to critically evaluate that information to ensure that it is trustworthy and relevant to your purpose or context.

These skills will serve you well after you graduate, when you may not have the same access to library resources that you have now.

Graduate attributes

The content of this module relates to the following graduate attributes:

3.1.1 A knowledge base for engineering: Demonstrated competence in university level mathematics, natural sciences, engineering fundamentals, and specialized engineering knowledge appropriate to the program.

3.1.2 Problem analysis: An ability to use appropriate knowledge and skills to identify, formulate, analyze, and solve complex engineering problems in order to reach substantiated conclusions.

3.1.3 Investigation: An ability to conduct investigations of complex problems by methods that include appropriate experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of information in order to reach valid conclusions.

3.1.7 Communication skills: An ability to communicate complex engineering concepts within the profession and with society at large. Such ability includes reading, writing, speaking and listening, and the ability to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, and to give and effectively respond to clear instructions.

3.1.8 Professionalism: An understanding of the roles and responsibilities of the professional engineer in society, especially the primary role of protection of the public and the public interest.

3.1.10 Ethics and equity: An ability to apply professional ethics, accountability, and equity.

3.1.12 Life-long learning: An ability to identify and to address their own educational needs in a changing world in ways sufficient to maintain their competence and to allow them to contribute to the advancement of knowledge.

References

Mandalios, J. (2013). RADAR: An approach for helping students evaluate Internet sources. Journal Of Information Science, 39, 470-478. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551513478889

McMahon, C., Lowe, A., & Culley, S. (2004). Knowledge management in engineering design: Personalization and codification. Journal of Engineering Design, 15(4), 307-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/09544820410001697154

Meriam Library. (n.d.). Evaluating information: Applying the CRAAP test [PDF]. California State University, Chico. https://library.csuchico.edu/sites/default/files/craap-test.pdf

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.) Information. In Merriam0Webster dictionary. Retrieved September 8, 2021, from  https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/information

Credit & licensing

Content Creators: Kate Mercer, Kari D. Weaver, Stephanie Mutch, Nasser Saleh, Michelle Spence, and Ian Robson.

Instructional and Graphic Designers: Anthony Maocheia-Ricci, Stefaniada Voichita, Stephanie Mutch, Hiba Zubairi, Cathy Sebastian, and Kari D. Weaver.

Additional feedback was generously contributed by many faculty, staff, and students at the University of Waterloo, Queens University, and the University of Toronto.

This module was created with financial support from a 2021 eCampus Ontario Virtual Learning Strategy Grant and is licensed under a Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution-Non Commercial License

(CC 4.0 BY-NC).

This work should be cited as follows:

Mercer, K., Weaver, K.D., Mutch, S., Saleh, N., Spence, M., Robson, I., Maocheia-Ricci, A., Voichita, S., Zubairi, H., & Sebastian, C. (2022). Information Evaluation and Filtering. eCampus Ontario. Link to repository. Used under CC 4.0 BY-NC.

For more information or to request permission for a non-licensed use, please email libaskus@uwaterloo.ca.

This project was led by individuals who live and work in Waterloo, which is the traditional territory of the Neutral, Anishinaabeg and Haudenosaunee peoples. The University of Waterloo’s main campus is situated on the Haldimand Tract, the land granted to the Six Nations that includes six miles on each side of the Grand River. Our active work toward reconciliation takes place across our campuses through research, learning, teaching, and community building, and is centralized within our Indigenous Initiatives Office .