A jetliner changes altitude as its distance from the starting point of a flight increases. The weight of a growing child increases with time. In each case, one quantity depends on another. There is a relationship between the two quantities that we can describe, analyze, and use to make predictions. In this section, we will analyze such relationships.
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The set consisting of the first components of each ordered pair is called the domain and the set consisting of the second components of each ordered pair is called the range. Consider the following set of ordered pairs. The first numbers in each pair are the first five natural numbers. The second number in each pair is twice that of the first.
The domain is The range is
Note that each value in the domain is also known as an input value, or independent variable, and is often labeled with the lowercase letterEach value in the range is also known as an output value, or dependent variable, and is often labeled lowercase letter
A functionis a relation that assigns a single element in the range to each element in the domain. In other words, no x-values are repeated. For our example that relates the first five natural numbers to numbers double their values, this relation is a function because each element in the domain, is paired with exactly one element in the range,
Now let’s consider the set of ordered pairs that relates the terms “even” and “odd” to the first five natural numbers. It would appear as
Notice that each element in the domain, is not paired with exactly one element in the range, For example, the term “odd” corresponds to three values from the domain, and the term “even” corresponds to two values from the range, This violates the definition of a function, so this relation is not a function.
[link] compares relations that are functions and not functions.
A function is a relation in which each possible input value leads to exactly one output value. We say “the output is a function of the input.”
The input values make up the domain, and the output values make up the range.
Given a relationship between two quantities, determine whether the relationship is a function.
The coffee shop menu, shown in [link] consists of items and their prices.
Each item on the menu has only one price, so the price is a function of the item.
Therefore, the item is a not a function of price.
In a particular math class, the overall percent grade corresponds to a grade-point average. Is grade-point average a function of the percent grade? Is the percent grade a function of the grade-point average? [link] shows a possible rule for assigning grade points.
Percent grade | 0–56 | 57–61 | 62–66 | 67–71 | 72–77 | 78–86 | 87–91 | 92–100 |
Grade-point average | 0.0 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 4.0 |
For any percent grade earned, there is an associated grade-point average, so the grade-point average is a function of the percent grade. In other words, if we input the percent grade, the output is a specific grade point average.
In the grading system given, there is a range of percent grades that correspond to the same grade-point average. For example, students who receive a grade point average of 3.0 could have a variety of percent grades ranging from 78 all the way to 86. Thus, percent grade is not a function of grade-point average.
[link]1 lists the five greatest baseball players of all time in order of rank.
Player | Rank |
---|---|
Babe Ruth | 1 |
Willie Mays | 2 |
Ty Cobb | 3 |
Walter Johnson | 4 |
Hank Aaron | 5 |
Is the rank a function of the player name? Is the player name a function of the rank?
a. yes; b. yes. (Note: If two players had been tied for, say, 4th place, then the name would not have been a function of rank.)
Once we determine that a relationship is a function, we need to display and define the functional relationships so that we can understand and use them, and sometimes also so that we can program them into graphing calculators and computers. There are various ways of representing functions. A standard function notation is one representation that facilitates working with functions.
To represent “height is a function of age,” we start by identifying the descriptive variables for height and for age. The lettersandare often used to represent functions just as we use and to represent numbers and and to represent sets.
Remember, we can use any letter to name the function; the notationshows us thatdepends onThe valuemust be put into the functionto get a result. The parentheses indicate that age is input into the function; they do not indicate multiplication.
We can also give an algebraic expression as the input to a function. For examplemeans “first add a and b, and the result is the input for the function f.” The operations must be performed in this order to obtain the correct result.
The notationdefines a function namedThis is read asis a function ofThe letterrepresents the input value, or independent variable. The letterorrepresents the output value, or dependent variable.
Use function notation to represent a function whose input is the name of a month and output is the number of days in that month.
The number of days in a month is a function of the name of the month, so if we name the function we write or The name of the month is the input to a “rule” that associates a specific number (the output) with each input.
For example,because March has 31 days. The notationreminds us that the number of days,(the output), is dependent on the name of the month,(the input).
Note that the inputs to a function do not have to be numbers; function inputs can be names of people, labels of geometric objects, or any other element that determines some kind of output. However, most of the functions we will work with in this book will have numbers as inputs and outputs.
A functiongives the number of police officers,in a town in yearWhat doesrepresent?
When we readwe see that the input year is 2005. The value for the output, the number of police officersis 300. Remember,The statementtells us that in the year 2005 there were 300 police officers in the town.
Use function notation to express the weight of a pig in pounds as a function of its age in days
Instead of a notation such ascould we use the same symbol for the output as for the function, such asmeaning “y is a function of x?”
Yes, this is often done, especially in applied subjects that use higher math, such as physics and engineering. However, in exploring math itself we like to maintain a distinction between a function such aswhich is a rule or procedure, and the outputwe get by applyingto a particular inputThis is why we usually use notation such asand so on.
A common method of representing functions is in the form of a table. The table rows or columns display the corresponding input and output values. In some cases, these values represent all we know about the relationship; other times, the table provides a few select examples from a more complete relationship.
[link] lists the input number of each month (January = 1, February = 2, and so on) and the output value of the number of days in that month. This information represents all we know about the months and days for a given year (that is not a leap year). Note that, in this table, we define a days-in-a-month functionwhereidentifies months by an integer rather than by name.
Month number,(input) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
Days in month,(output) | 31 | 28 | 31 | 30 | 31 | 30 | 31 | 31 | 30 | 31 | 30 | 31 |
[link] defines a functionRemember, this notation tells us thatis the name of the function that takes the inputand gives the output
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
8 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 8 |
[link] displays the age of children in years and their corresponding heights. This table displays just some of the data available for the heights and ages of children. We can see right away that this table does not represent a function because the same input value, 5 years, has two different output values, 40 in. and 42 in.
Age in years,(input) | 5 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
Height in inches,(output) | 40 | 42 | 44 | 47 | 50 | 52 | 54 |
Given a table of input and output values, determine whether the table represents a function.
Which table, [link], [link], or [link], represents a function (if any)?
Input | Output |
---|---|
2 | 1 |
5 | 3 |
8 | 6 |
Input | Output |
---|---|
–3 | 5 |
0 | 1 |
4 | 5 |
Input | Output |
---|---|
1 | 0 |
5 | 2 |
5 | 4 |
[link] and [link] define functions. In both, each input value corresponds to exactly one output value. [link] does not define a function because the input value of 5 corresponds to two different output values.
When a table represents a function, corresponding input and output values can also be specified using function notation.
The function represented by [link] can be represented by writing
Similarly, the statements
represent the function in [link].
[link] cannot be expressed in a similar way because it does not represent a function.
Does [link] represent a function?
Input | Output |
---|---|
1 | 10 |
2 | 100 |
3 | 1000 |
yes
When we know an input value and want to determine the corresponding output value for a function, we evaluate the function. Evaluating will always produce one result because each input value of a function corresponds to exactly one output value.
When we know an output value and want to determine the input values that would produce that output value, we set the output equal to the function’s formula and solve for the input. Solving can produce more than one solution because different input values can produce the same output value.
When we have a function in formula form, it is usually a simple matter to evaluate the function. For example, the functioncan be evaluated by squaring the input value, multiplying by 3, and then subtracting the product from 5.
Given the formula for a function, evaluate.
Evaluateat
Replace the in the function with each specified value.
and we know that
Now we combine the results and simplify.
Given the functionevaluate
To evaluatewe substitute the value 4 for the input variablein the given function.
Therefore, for an input of 4, we have an output of 24.
Given the functionevaluate
Given the functionsolve for
Ifeitheror(or both of them equal 0). We will set each factor equal to 0 and solve forin each case.
This gives us two solutions. The outputwhen the input is eitherorWe can also verify by graphing as in [link]. The graph verifies thatand
Given the functionsolve
Some functions are defined by mathematical rules or procedures expressed in equation form. If it is possible to express the function output with a formula involving the input quantity, then we can define a function in algebraic form. For example, the equationexpresses a functional relationship between andWe can rewrite it to decide ifis a function of
Given a function in equation form, write its algebraic formula.
Express the relationshipas a functionif possible.
To express the relationship in this form, we need to be able to write the relationship whereis a function ofwhich means writing it as
Therefore,as a function ofis written as
Does the equationrepresent a function withas input andas output? If so, express the relationship as a function
First we subtractfrom both sides.
We now try to solve forin this equation.
We get two outputs corresponding to the same input, so this relationship cannot be represented as a single function If we graph both functions on a graphing calculator, we will get the upper and lower semicircles.
Ifexpressas a function of
Are there relationships expressed by an equation that do represent a function but that still cannot be represented by an algebraic formula?
Yes, this can happen. For example, given the equationif we want to expressas a function ofthere is no simple algebraic formula involving onlythat equalsHowever, eachdoes determine a unique value forand there are mathematical procedures by whichcan be found to any desired accuracy. In this case, we say that the equation gives an implicit (implied) rule foras a function ofeven though the formula cannot be written explicitly.
As we saw above, we can represent functions in tables. Conversely, we can use information in tables to write functions, and we can evaluate functions using the tables. For example, how well do our pets recall the fond memories we share with them? There is an urban legend that a goldfish has a memory of 3 seconds, but this is just a myth. Goldfish can remember up to 3 months, while the beta fish has a memory of up to 5 months. And while a puppy’s memory span is no longer than 30 seconds, the adult dog can remember for 5 minutes. This is meager compared to a cat, whose memory span lasts for 16 hours.
The function that relates the type of pet to the duration of its memory span is more easily visualized with the use of a table. See [link].2
Pet | Memory span in hours |
---|---|
Puppy | 0.008 |
Adult dog | 0.083 |
Cat | 16 |
Goldfish | 2160 |
Beta fish | 3600 |
At times, evaluating a function in table form may be more useful than using equations. Here let us call the function The domain of the function is the type of pet and the range is a real number representing the number of hours the pet’s memory span lasts. We can evaluate the functionat the input value of “goldfish.” We would write Notice that, to evaluate the function in table form, we identify the input value and the corresponding output value from the pertinent row of the table. The tabular form for functionseems ideally suited to this function, more so than writing it in paragraph or function form.
Given a function represented by a table, identify specific output and input values.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
8 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 8 |
When we input 2 into the functionour output is 6. When we input 4 into the functionour output is also 6.
Using [link], evaluate
Evaluating a function using a graph also requires finding the corresponding output value for a given input value, only in this case, we find the output value by looking at the graph. Solving a function equation using a graph requires finding all instances of the given output value on the graph and observing the corresponding input value(s).
Using [link], solve
or
Some functions have a given output value that corresponds to two or more input values. For example, in the stock chart shown in [link] at the beginning of this chapter, the stock price was $1000 on five different dates, meaning that there were five different input values that all resulted in the same output value of $1000.
However, some functions have only one input value for each output value, as well as having only one output for each input. We call these functions one-to-one functions. As an example, consider a school that uses only letter grades and decimal equivalents, as listed in [link].
Letter grade | Grade point average |
---|---|
A | 4.0 |
B | 3.0 |
C | 2.0 |
D | 1.0 |
This grading system represents a one-to-one function because each letter input yields one particular grade-point average output and each grade-point average corresponds to one input letter.
To visualize this concept, let’s look again at the two simple functions sketched in [link](a) and [link](b). The function in part (a) shows a relationship that is not a one-to-one function because inputsandboth give outputThe function in part (b) shows a relationship that is a one-to-one function because each input is associated with a single output.
A one-to-one function is a function in which each output value corresponds to exactly one input value. There are no repeated x- or y-values.
Is the area of a circle a function of its radius? If yes, is the function one-to-one?
A circle of radius has a unique area measure given byso for any input,there is only one output, The area is a function of radius
If the function is one-to-one, the output value, the area, must correspond to a unique input value, the radius. Any area measureis given by the formulaBecause areas and radii are positive numbers, there is exactly one solution:So the area of a circle is a one-to-one function of the circle’s radius.
a. yes, because each bank account has a single balance at any given time; b. no, because several bank account numbers may have the same balance; c. no, because the same output may correspond to more than one input.
As we have seen in some examples above, we can represent a function using a graph. Graphs display a great many input-output pairs in a small space. The visual information they provide often makes relationships easier to understand. By convention, graphs are typically constructed with the input values along the horizontal axis and the output values along the vertical axis.
The most common graphs name the input valueand the output valueand we sayis a function oforwhen the function is namedThe graph of the function is the set of all pointsin the plane that satisfies the equationIf the function is defined for only a few input values, then the graph of the function consists of only a few points, where the x-coordinate of each point is an input value and the y-coordinate of each point is the corresponding output value. For example, the black dots on the graph in [link] tell us thatandHowever, the set of all pointssatisfyingis a curve. The curve shown includesandbecause the curve passes through those points.
The vertical line test can be used to determine whether a graph represents a function. If we can draw any vertical line that intersects a graph more than once, then the graph does not define a function because a function has only one output value for each input value. See [link].
Given a graph, use the vertical line test to determine if the graph represents a function.
If any vertical line intersects a graph more than once, the relation represented by the graph is not a function. Notice that any vertical line would pass through only one point of the two graphs shown in parts (a) and (b) of [link]. From this we can conclude that these two graphs represent functions. The third graph does not represent a function because, at most x-values, a vertical line would intersect the graph at more than one point, as shown in [link].
Does the graph in [link] represent a function?
yes
Once we have determined that a graph defines a function, an easy way to determine if it is a one-to-one function is to use the horizontal line test. Draw horizontal lines through the graph. If any horizontal line intersects the graph more than once, then the graph does not represent a one-to-one function.
Given a graph of a function, use the horizontal line test to determine if the graph represents a one-to-one function.
Consider the functions shown in [link](a) and [link](b). Are either of the functions one-to-one?
The function in [link](a) is not one-to-one. The horizontal line shown in [link] intersects the graph of the function at two points (and we can even find horizontal lines that intersect it at three points.)
The function in [link](b) is one-to-one. Any horizontal line will intersect a diagonal line at most once.
Is the graph shown in [link] one-to-one?
No, because it does not pass the horizontal line test.
In this text, we will be exploring functions—the shapes of their graphs, their unique characteristics, their algebraic formulas, and how to solve problems with them. When learning to read, we start with the alphabet. When learning to do arithmetic, we start with numbers. When working with functions, it is similarly helpful to have a base set of building-block elements. We call these our “toolkit functions,” which form a set of basic named functions for which we know the graph, formula, and special properties. Some of these functions are programmed to individual buttons on many calculators. For these definitions we will useas the input variable andas the output variable.
We will see these toolkit functions, combinations of toolkit functions, their graphs, and their transformations frequently throughout this book. It will be very helpful if we can recognize these toolkit functions and their features quickly by name, formula, graph, and basic table properties. The graphs and sample table values are included with each function shown in [link].
Toolkit Functions | ||
---|---|---|
Name | Function | Graph |
Constant | where is a constant |
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Identity |
![]() |
|
Absolute value |
![]() |
|
Quadratic |
![]() |
|
Cubic |
![]() |
|
Reciprocal |
![]() |
|
Reciprocal squared |
![]() |
|
Square root |
![]() |
|
Cube root |
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Access the following online resources for additional instruction and practice with functions.
Constant function | whereis a constant |
Identity function | |
Absolute value function | |
Quadratic function | |
Cubic function | |
Reciprocal function | |
Reciprocal squared function | |
Square root function | |
Cube root function |
What is the difference between a relation and a function?
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. A function is a special kind of relation in which no two ordered pairs have the same first coordinate.
What is the difference between the input and the output of a function?
Why does the vertical line test tell us whether the graph of a relation represents a function?
When a vertical line intersects the graph of a relation more than once, that indicates that for that input there is more than one output. At any particular input value, there can be only one output if the relation is to be a function.
How can you determine if a relation is a one-to-one function?
Why does the horizontal line test tell us whether the graph of a function is one-to-one?
When a horizontal line intersects the graph of a function more than once, that indicates that for that output there is more than one input. A function is one-to-one if each output corresponds to only one input.
For the following exercises, determine whether the relation represents a function.
function
For the following exercises, determine whether the relation representsas a function of
function
function
function
function
function
function
function
function
not a function
For the following exercises, evaluate the functionat the indicated values
Given the functionsimplify
Given the functionsimplify
Given the function
Given the function
a.b.
Given the function
Given the function
a.b.or
Given the function
Consider the relationship
a.b.c.
For the following exercises, use the vertical line test to determine which graphs show relations that are functions.
not a function
function
function
function
function
function
Given the following graph, Evaluate Solve for
Given the following graph, Evaluate Solve for
a.b.or
Given the following graph, Evaluate Solve for
For the following exercises, determine if the given graph is a one-to-one function.
not a function so it is also not a one-to-one function
one-to- one function
function, but not one-to-one
For the following exercises, determine whether the relation represents a function.
function
For the following exercises, determine if the relation represented in table form representsas a function of
5 | 10 | 15 | |
3 | 8 | 14 |
function
5 | 10 | 15 | |
3 | 8 | 8 |
5 | 10 | 10 | |
3 | 8 | 14 |
not a function
For the following exercises, use the functionrepresented in [link].
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |
74 | 28 | 1 | 53 | 56 | 3 | 36 | 45 | 14 | 47 |
Evaluate
Solve
For the following exercises, evaluate the functionat the valuesand
For the following exercises, evaluate the expressions, given functionsand
20
For the following exercises, graphon the given viewing window. Determine the corresponding range for each viewing window. Show each graph.
For the following exercises, graphon the given viewing window. Determine the corresponding range for each viewing window. Show each graph.
For the following exercises, graphon the given viewing window. Determine the corresponding range for each viewing window. Show each graph.
For the following exercises, graph on the given viewing window. Determine the corresponding range for each viewing window. Show each graph.
The amount of garbage,produced by a city with populationis given byis measured in tons per week, andis measured in thousands of people.
The number of cubic yards of dirt,needed to cover a garden with areasquare feet is given by
a. b. The number of cubic yards of dirt required for a garden of 100 square feet is 1.
Letbe the number of ducks in a lakeyears after 1990. Explain the meaning of each statement:
Letbe the height above ground, in feet, of a rocketseconds after launching. Explain the meaning of each statement:
a. The height of a rocket above ground after 1 second is 200 ft. b. the height of a rocket above ground after 2 seconds is 350 ft.
Show that the functionis not one-to-one.