— Albert Einstein[footnote]Opening quote retrieved from Goodreads.com.[/footnote]

INTRODUCTION

Research on the Net

Statistics Canada One of the leading sources for information on Canada and Canadians is Statistics Canada. Statistics Canada, originally called the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, was established in 1918 as a federal government department that is mandated under the Statistics Act (1985) to “collect, compile, analyze, abstract and publish statistical information relating to the commercial, industrial, financial, social, economic and general activities and conditions of the people” (s 3). Here, various economists, mathematical statisticians, programmers, demographers, sociologists, senior methodologists, and others are employed in a realm of social research describing Canada and its people. For example, you can learn about the population and characteristics of Indigenous people; the health and well-being of children and youth; the economic viability of Canada’s economy; the average annual income of families; trends in labour; energy supply and demand; and commuting patterns. One of the most important functions of Statistics Canada is to generate research to help inform policy that is developed at the provincial and federal levels of government. The information collected about Canadian citizens, businesses, departments, and programs helps decision making involving the prioritization of issues, the allocation of funding, and the development of rules and strategies. This occurs through the analysis of economic performance, the shaping of trade negotiations, the monitoring of the effectiveness of the justice system, the assessment of program funding, the maintenance of education and healthcare policies, and other regulatory systems involving the government. For more information on Statistics Canada and its research-based career opportunities, visit Careers at Statistics Canada.   [caption id="attachment_835" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Image 1.1 Statistics Canada is the main federal government source for economic, social, and census data.[/caption]

WAYS OF KNOWING AND THEIR LIMITATIONS AS SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Tradition, Common Sense, and Authority

Experience

COMMON ERRORS IN REASONING

Imprecise Observation

Illogical Reasoning

Overgeneralization

Selective Observation

Activity: Ways of Knowing and Common Errors

Premature Closure

SCIENTIFIC REASONING

• Social researchers seek to find answers through a careful examination of the social world. They do not assume that their initial beliefs or ideas are necessarily correct, and this reduces the likelihood of unquestioning faith in the teachings of tradition or authority. Similarly, while common sense and prior experience can aid scientific inquiry, these forms of knowledge do not substitute for observations that take place in the social world. The importance of theory and prior research for informing the development of new research is the topic of chapter 2.
• Social researchers also rely upon systematic procedures and processes that contribute to quality observations focused in areas of interest. These lessen the likelihood of imprecise observation, selective observation, and illogical reasoning since researchers are very clear about what it is they are studying and how they will go about collecting, analyzing, and making sense of their observations. The main components of a research design and the features of sound measurement are covered in detail in chapter 4.
• Social researchers limit the tendency to make overgeneralizations by ensuring they collect information from individuals or sources that appropriately represent the group or targeted area of interest (see chapter 5 on sampling). In addition, their findings are also open to scrutiny and verification by other researchers in their field of study.

Social Research

Applied and Basic Research

GOALS OF RESEARCH

Exploration

• What is the experience of maternal attachment like for mothers in Canadian stepfamilies? (Gosselin & Gosselin, 2016)
• What is the relationship between perceived and actual water quality in Newfoundland? (Ochoo et al., 2017)
• What factors have contributed to dietary transitions experienced by Inuit in the Canadian Artic? (Little et al., 2020)
• What barriers to employment are experienced by international medical graduates in Canada? (Turin et al., 2023)

Description

• What are Canadian athletes’ experiences with and attitudes toward hazing behaviours? (Johnson et al., 2018)
• What are the characteristics of Canadians who have experienced unsheltered or hidden homelessness? (Uppal, 2022)
• What are some of the trends and correlates of cannabis use in Canada? (Lowry & Corsi, 2020)
• What are Canadian 2SLGBTQI+ youth’s experiences with gender-based violence? (Wright et al., 2023)

Explanation

• How does fluoride cessation impact tooth decay in children living in Alberta? (McLaren et al., 2017)
• Why do Quebecers trust much less compared to other Canadians? (Wu & Dawson, 2022)
• Why do university students prefer certain types of assessments over others? (Jopp et al., 2023)
• How do front-of-package nutrition labels for foods high in saturated fat, sugar, and/or sodium influence food choices among Canadian consumers? (Lee et al., 2022)

Evaluation

• Is drug checking at a supervised injection facility in Vancouver a feasible intervention for reducing deaths caused by fentanyl overdoses? (Karamouzian et al., 2018)
• Does a health-promoting schools approach improve student well-being and health behaviours in elementary students in Nova Scotia? (McIsaac et al., 2017)
• Can a virtual community health simulation program improve student learning outcomes? (Chircop et al., 2023)
• What are the ongoing training needs of Special Olympics Canada program leaders and volunteers? (Temple & Field, 2023)

Activity: Goals of Social Research

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Quantitative Methods

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative versus Quantitative: An Unnecessary Divide

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Explain why it is important to learn about social research methods. Research methods are a practical means for acquiring knowledge and developing an informed opinion that is useful in a range of contexts, from everyday curiosity to skills that underlie most forms of employment.
2. Identify various “ways of knowing” and note their limitations. Four common ways of knowing include the use of tradition, common sense, authority, and personal experience. While highly informative and convenient, sources of knowledge are also fraught with errors as we learn accurate and inaccurate information as part of tradition; common sense fails to hold true under many circumstances; authority figures often speak well beyond their level of experience; and personal experience is restricted to our recollections of observations.
3. Recognize common errors in reasoning. Imprecise observation refers to the everyday errors we make as a function of our ability to take in, store, and later recall an overwhelming amount of information accurately. Illogical reasoning refers to decision making based on a failure to consider the most important sources of information. Overgeneralization is the tendency to assume a general pattern or trait exists based on a limited number of observations, while selective observation is the tendency to assume a general pattern exists based on factors other than objective frequency. Premature closure refers to a tendency to stop searching for necessary observations due to an erroneous belief that an answer has already been determined.
4. Define social research, distinguish between primary and secondary research, and differentiate between basic and applied research. Social research is a process where a set of principles, outlooks, and ideas are combined with a collection of specific practices, techniques, and strategies to produce knowledge. Primary research refers to first-hand data collection and data analysis that is undertaken to answer an original research question. Secondary research refers to the summarizing or analysis of research already collected by others. Applied research refers to scientific research that is conducted to specifically address a problem, while basic research is conducted to advance knowledge for its own sake.
5. Explain the goals of research. Social research is usually conducted to explore, to describe, to explain, or to critically evaluate a program or phenomenon of interest (i.e., evaluation or critical research). Exploratory research is carried out to learn more about an area of interest. Descriptive research is undertaken to establish the main traits of a population. Explanatory research is conducted to clarify the variation found between groups on some dimension of interest. Evaluation research assesses whether a program or policy is effective.
6. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research methods. Quantitative research methods are techniques that seek to describe, explain, or evaluate a phenomenon of interest, while qualitative research methods are tools that seek to explore, interpret, explain, or evaluate a phenomenon of interest. Quantitative methods produce numerical data amenable to statistical analyses, while qualitative methods produce non-numerical data, often in the form of words, patterns, or themes.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

1. Identify one traditional belief or idea that was passed on to you from a family member or close friend as a form of advice. Are there any obvious limitations to that information as a means of knowing about the world? Do any of the common errors in reasoning apply to this example? If you were going to examine this assumption using a scientific approach, what is one technique you could use to test it in the real world? Describe how you would carry out such a study.
2. Suppose you were interested in studying homelessness in a large city such as Toronto, Montreal, Calgary, Vancouver, or Ottawa. Develop one research question you could attempt to answer in this study. Which of the four goals of social research is most closely aligned with the question you created? Defend your answer.
3. Starting with the general topic area of health, develop a specific research question to highlight each of the four distinct goals of social research. Which of the following questions holds the most interest to you? Which research technique is best suited to gather data to answer your preferred question of interest?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

1. Locate and print off a scholarly article of interest based on primary research in an academic journal from a social science database (e.g., Social Sciences Citation Index [part of Web of Science], PsychINFO, Academic Search Complete, SocINDEX, Sociological Abstracts, Criminal Justice Abstracts, or Anthropology Plus).
2. Describe the social issue that underlies the research interest of the article. How is the main research question framed?
3. Are the researchers conducting mainly qualitative, mainly quantitative, or both types of research? How do you know?
4. Which main goal of social research does the objective of this study best align with? Explain your answer.
5. Describe one of the techniques used by the researchers to obtain information on their question of interest.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

1. For an overview of qualitative research techniques, see van den Hoonaard, D. K., and van den Scott, L-J. (2022). Qualitative research in action: A Canadian primer (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
2. For an overview of quantitative research techniques, refer to Cozby, P. C., Mar, R. A., and Rawn, C. D. (2020). Methods in behavioural research (3rd Canadian ed.). McGraw-Hill.
3. To find scholarly research articles, refer to the database “Social Sciences Citation Index" (part of Web of Science). You can likely access this database for free through the library at the post-secondary institution where you are taking classes.
4. For the most comprehensive source of data on virtually all aspects of Canadian lives, refer to the Statistics Canada website.

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World Health Organization. (2023, August 9). Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption to reduce the risk of noncommunicable diseases. https://www.who.int/tools/elena/interventions/fruit-vegetables-ncds

Wright, J. J., Zidenberg, A. M., Fraser, L., Peter, T., Cameron, L., & Jakubiec, B. (2023). Speak out: Lessons on how to support Canadian 2SLGBTQI youths who face gender-based violence. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 32(3), 251–263. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2022-0035

Wu, C., & Dawson, A. (2022). Why is trust lower in Quebec? A cultural explanation. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie, 59, 309–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12385

Yang, W. (2017). Does 'compulsory volunteering' affect subsequent behavior? Evidence from a natural experiment in Canada. Education Economics, 25(4), 394–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2016.1182622

Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications (6th ed.). Sage.

Zetou, E., Amprasi, E., Michalopoulou, M., & Aggelousis, N. (2011). Volleyball coaches behavior assessment through systematic observation. Journal of Human Sports Exercise, 6(4), 585–593. https://doi.org/10.4100/jhse.2011.64.02

Zimbardo, P. G. (2004). A situationist perspective on the psychology of evil: Understanding how good people are transformed into perpetrators. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil (pp. 21–50). Guilford Press.

Zimbardo, P. G., Maslach, C., & Haney, C. (2000). Reflections on the Stanford prison experiment: Genesis, transformations, consequences. In T. Blass (Ed.), Obedience to authority: Current perspectives on the Milgram paradigm (pp. 193–237). Erlbaum.

— Kurt Lewin, 1951, p. 169

INTRODUCTION

INQUIRY PARADIGMS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Positivist Paradigm

Interpretive Paradigm

Critical Paradigm

Pragmatic Paradigm

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGES AND RESEARCH PARADIGMS

Since Indigenous knowledge structures encompass a dynamic array of beliefs and lived experiences held by various individuals identifying with vastly different tribal groups in many different locations, it is difficult to identify common features. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization defines local and Indigenous knowledge as the

understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For rural and Indigenous Peoples, local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of day-to-day life. This knowledge is integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality.” (UNESCO, 2024)

In her book on Indigenous methodologies, Margaret Kovach (2021) explains:

The scope and basis of an Indigenous epistemology encompasses:

• multiple sources of knowledge, more commonly recognized as holism (scope);
• a tangible and intangible animate world that is process oriented and cyclical, such as that expressed in verb-oriented language (e.g., with ing endings), which comprise many Indigenous languages (basis); and
• a web of interdependent, contextual, relationships over time, such as with place, family and community (basis)(p. 68).

Whereas the aim of a positivist paradigm is to discover universal laws, an Indigenous research paradigm seeks to challenge colonized ways of thinking and to employ decolonized research methods that enable a respectful reclaiming of Indigenous cultures and knowledges. Because Indigenous knowledges are largely maintained through oral transmission and cultural practices, Indigenous methodologies also include ceremonies and formal protocols, and they are amenable to narrative inquiry as in the case of sharing circles and storytelling (Kovach, 2021). When it comes to employing Indigenous research methods, the fundamental point to remember is that the research process and the resulting data and knowledge stemming from it are integrally based on “relational actions”—that is, the personal relationships and connections that are formed with Indigenous communities based on trust (Kovach, 2021).

Activity: Understanding Research Paradigms

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND THEORIES

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH

Deductive Forms of Reasoning

Activity: Deductive Research Process

Testing Hypotheses Derived from Theories

Inductive Forms of Reasoning

The Role of Theory in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

there are advantages and disadvantages here. Those who seek to classify their qualities prior to data collection can be accused of imposing their own priorities, while those who seek to allow classifications to emerge during the research process are thereby unable to use the data collection period to test their subsequent theories. They too can then be accused of imposing their own priorities because it is hard to confirm or disprove their interpretations as no ‘testing’ has been done. (p. 92)

FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Locating a Topic of Interest

Framing an Interest into a Social Research Question

THE IMPORTANCE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

1. First, a literature review tells you how much has already been done in this area. For example, if you are interested in carrying out a study on the portrayal of gender stereotypes in the media, it is important for you to know that you are going to be delving into an area that has been heavily researched for decades. There are literally millions of previous studies on the gender stereotypes in movies, on television, in magazines, and on the internet. In this case, your research question would not be exploratory in nature. One of your next steps with this topic would be to narrow your focus (e.g., perhaps you are more interested in male stereotypes portrayed in magazine advertisements).
2. Second, a literature review helps familiarize you with what is already known in the area. Continuing with an interest in stereotyped depictions of males, the literature can help you learn more about the construction of masculinity and how the male body is depicted in advertising. For example, Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore (1986) note that advertising has increasingly come to celebrate a young, lean, and highly muscular body. This helps you choose an area that most interests you and that you can build upon with your own research (or that you can identify for an area of future research).
3. Third, a literature review helps you understand the debates and main points of interest within an area of study. Existing literature can inform you about how the portrayal of gender stereotypes in the media can lead people to become dissatisfied with their body image or engage in extreme practices and measures designed to obtain an ideal body image (e.g., dieting, fitness, cosmetic surgery). The literature can also help you understand similarities and differences in the ways in which men and women are portrayed, or how depictions of men have changed over time. These considerations may further shape the direction you elect to take with a current or future research project.
4. Fourth, a literature review highlights what still needs to be done in an area of interest. By examining previous research, you can find out researchers’ suggestions for additional studies, where replications would be helpful, or areas that still need to be addressed. The discussion section at the end of most academic articles typically includes a few sentences that explicitly address how the current study could have been improved upon and/or point out a direction for future research. This is where you will obtain a sense of how you could design a study that builds on the existing literature but also contributes something new.
5. Lastly, a literature review can help you define important theories and concepts as well as establish guidelines for how you will need to carry out your own study. For example, if you wish to clarify how male bodies are shown in magazine advertisements, it would be practical to locate examples by other researchers that have already established standard ways to describe and code the body of a central character in an advertisement appearing in magazines.

LOCATING RELEVANT LITERATURE

Searching for Books

Searching for Periodicals

Searching for Government Information

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Outline the main assumptions of positivist, interpretative, critical, and pragmatic paradigms. The positivist paradigm emphasizes objectivity and the importance of discovering truth using empirical methods. The interpretive paradigm stresses the importance of subjective understanding and discovering meaning as it exists for the people experiencing it. The critical paradigm focuses on the role of power in the creation of knowledge. The pragmatic paradigm begins with a research problem and determines a course of action for studying it based on what seems most appropriate given that research problem.
2. Explain why decolonization is necessary for learning about Indigenous knowledges. For Indigenous knowledges to be derived from Indigenous sources in an authentic and respectful manner, those who have suffered colonization need to be given the space to communicate on their own terms from their frames of reference, as opposed to trying to obtain information via research methods that are based on Euro-Western influences.
3. Define and differentiate between theoretical frameworks and theories. Theoretical frameworks are perspectives based on core assumptions that provide a foundation for examining the social world at different levels. For example, theoretical frameworks at the macro level tend to focus on broader social forces, while those at the micro level emphasize individual experiences. Theories develop from theoretical perspectives, and they include propositions that are intended to explain a fact or phenomenon of interest.
4. Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning and explain how the role of theory differs in qualitative and quantitative research. Deductive reasoning is a top-down, theory-driven approach that concludes with generalizations based on research findings. Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach that begins with observations and typically ends with theory construction. Inductive approaches to reasoning guide qualitative research processes, while deductive approaches guide the stages of quantitative research. Theory tends to be the starting point for quantitative research, while it is interspersed throughout and emphasized more in the later stages of qualitative research.
5. Formulate social research questions. Based on a broad area of interest and a careful literature review, a researcher eventually shapes a research interest into a social research question, which is a question about the social world that is answered through the collection and analysis of data. For example, a researcher might begin with an interest in gender that develops into an examination of the effects of body size on income for male and female workers, as demonstrated earlier in the chapter.
6. Explain the importance of a literature review. A literature review is the starting point for formulating social research questions. A literature review helps to identify what is already known about and still needs to be done in an area of interest. A literature review also points out debates and issues in an area of interest, along with the most relevant concepts and means for going about studying the issue in more depth.
7. Locate appropriate literature and evaluate sources of information found on the internet. Appropriate literature sources include periodicals, books, and government documents, most of which can be accessed online through the library at post-secondary institutions. You should evaluate the quality of information gleaned from websites prior to using that information as a primary source in a literature review. Evaluating information on the internet generally takes the form of asking questions that centre on the source, timeliness, accuracy, and relevance of the site. For example, in assessing accuracy, you can ask “Is the information free of spelling, grammatical, and technical errors?” and “Where did the information come from?”

RESEARCH REFLECTION

1. Read Margaret Kovach’s (2018) chapter titled Doing Indigenous methodologies: A letter to a research class in N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (5th ed., pp. 108–150). Sage. Based on your reading, explain why the author claims it is not possible to do Indigenous methodologies. Also note the ways in which Indigenous methodologies are relational in nature.
2. Identify a general area of interest to you. Within that area of interest, develop two social research questions—one that implies an exploratory purpose and one that implies an explanatory purpose. Which paradigm introduced at the beginning of the chapter do you think best represents the research questions you developed? Explain why this is the case.
3. In what ways is an article found in a scholarly journal likely to be more appropriate as a reference source for a research topic than one located using a search engine such as Bing or Google?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

1. Use Google to locate a website that contains relevant information on a topic of interest.
2. Assess the website and associated resources using the following 10 questions:
   1. Who created the site and what are their credentials?
   2. What are the qualifications of authors associated with the site?
   3. Is it possible to verify the accuracy of any of the claims made on this site?
   4. Is an educational purpose for this site evident?
   5. Is the site objective (or free from bias)?
   6. Is the site free of advertisements?
   7. Can you tell when the site was created?
   8. Was the site updated recently?
   9. Are there properly cited references on the site?
   10. Are there any errors on site (e.g., spelling, grammatical)?
3. What rating would you give this site out of 100, if 100 percent is “perfect” and 0 stands for “without any merit.” Explain why you think the site deserves this rating based on the questions listed above.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

1. To learn more about social theorists and the underpinnings of social theory, refer to Ritzer, G., and Stepnisky, J. (2021). Sociological theory (11th ed.). Sage.
2. For an introduction to Indigenous ways of knowing, as well as historical and contemporary issues involving Canada’s First Peoples, refer to Belanger, Y. D. and Hanrahan, M. (2022). Ways of knowing: An introduction to Indigenous studies in Canada (4th ed.). Top Hat.
3. To learn about decolonizing strategies and the potential for Indigenizing education, read Cote-Meek, S., and Moeke-Pickering, T. (2020). Decolonizing and Indigenizing education in Canada. Canadian Scholars Press.
4. To learn how Indigenous knowledge structures inform research conducted by Indigenous scholars, see Kovach, M. (2021). Indigenous methodologies: Characteristics, conversations and contexts. University of Toronto Press.

— Martin Johnson, 2007, p. 29

INTRODUCTION

UNETHICAL TREATMENT OF HUMANS AND REGULATORY OUTCOMES

Military Research: Nazi Experiments 1939–1945

The Nuremberg Code

1. The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential.
2. The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society.
3. The experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation.
4. The experiment should be so conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury.
5. No experiment should be conducted where there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur.
6. The degree of risk to be taken should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment.
7. Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death.
8. The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons.
9. During the course of the experiment the human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end.
10. During the course of the experiment the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage. (pp. 181–182).

Biomedical Research: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

The Belmont Report

• Principle 1: Respect for persons
• Principle 2: Beneficence
• Principle 3: Justice

UNETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

[i]t would be interesting to know what sort of procedures could dissipate the type of emotional disturbance just described. In view of the effects on subjects, traumatic to a degree which Milgram himself considers nearly unprecedented in sociopsychological experiments, his casual assurance that these tensions were dissipated before the subject left the laboratory is unconvincing. (p. 422)

Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

Activity: Unethical Treatment of Humans

ETHICAL ISSUES COMMON TO SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

1. The Potential for Harm

2. Risk-Benefit Analysis

3. Informed Consent

4. Privacy and Confidentiality

(1) “representational authority,” concerning who gets to decide how the image is depicted, in terms of the perspective created; (2) “decontextualization/circulation,” concerning where the image ends up and how it gets used; (3) “presumed versus actual outcomes of image display”; (4) “relations with and responsibilities toward research subjects/communities”; (5) “balancing privacy versus publicity, depending on subject’s wishes”; (6) “the importance of communication and consent of subjects and communities at every stage of the research process”; and (7) the collection and dissemination of visual materials within the context of globally expanding media savvy and presence. (pp. 6–7)

5. Debriefing

Activity: Common Ethical Considerations

TRI-COUNCIL POLICY STATEMENT

Respect for Persons

Establishment of Consent

Concern for Welfare

Privacy risks arise in all stages of the research life cycle, including initial collection of information, use and analysis to address research questions, dissemination of findings, storage and retention of information, and disposal of records or devices on which information is stored (Canadian Institutes of Health Research et al., 2022, p. 77).

Justice

RESEARCH ETHICS BOARDS AND THE ETHICAL REVIEW PROCESS

Membership Requirements

Ethical Review Process

Ethical Review Application Form

Research Ethics Board Decision

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Define research ethics and provide examples of research-related ethical conduct. Research ethics refer to an array of considerations that arise in relation to the morally responsible treatment of humans in research. For example, ethical conduct includes minimizing the risk of harm to participants, treating participants fairly, equitably, and with respect, ensuring participants have provided informed and voluntary consent, and safeguarding privacy.
2. Recognize links between early military research and regulatory outcomes. Much of the early research conducted by Nazi doctors and military personnel involved severe injury or death for victims, who were forced to participate in experiments against their will. The Nuremberg Code consists of 10 ethical guidelines outlining safeguards for experiments, including the importance of obtaining informed and voluntary consent, providing justification for a study based on its overall merits versus potential for causing harm, minimizing the potential for harm, and giving subjects the liberty to withdraw their participation at any time. The Belmont Report comprises three main principles: respect for persons (a principle recognizing the autonomy and worth of individuals), beneficence (a principle stressing the importance of maximizing benefits and minimizing harm), and justice (a principle underlying socially responsible behaviour).
3. Discuss ethical considerations raised by classic studies in social research. In Stanley Milgram’s experiments on obedience to authority, participants were harmed by the belief that they were administering painful electric shocks to another participant. In Philip Zimbardo’s simulated prison study, prisoners were harmed by the aggressive and abusive tendencies that developed in the guards.
4. Discuss the potential for harm, risk-benefit analysis, informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, and debriefing as major ethical considerations in social science research. Researchers attempt to design studies in a manner that minimizes the risk of any form of harm, such as physical or psychological. Informed consent refers to an autonomous process whereby participants are provided with the relevant details needed to make a judgment about whether or not to participate in a study. Anonymity exists if a researcher cannot link individual responses to the person who provided them. Confidentiality is a process for maintaining privacy wherein the researcher ensures that a participant’s identity will not be publicly disclosed. Debriefing refers to a full disclosure and exchange of information regarding all aspects of the study.
5. Identify the core principles that underlie the Tri-Council Policy Statement, TCPS 2 (CIHR et al., 2022). The overarching value of the TCPS 2 is respect for human dignity, expressed as respect for persons (i.e., human worth), concern for welfare (i.e., quality of life), and justice (i.e., fair and equitable treatment).
6. Describe the role of an ethics review board and outline the process for undergoing an ethical review of research. The role of an ethics review board is to review the ethical acceptability of research on behalf of an institution, including approving, rejecting, proposing modifications to, or terminating any proposed or ongoing research involving humans. Researchers submit an application that summarizes a proposed study, along with the relevant ethical considerations, to the chair of the REB, the REB reviews the application, and the researcher is provided with a written decision.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

1. Imagine you are a member of a research ethics board and the chair of the REB has asked you to come of up with criteria for assessing the level of risk in social research. Develop criteria and/or provide examples to illustrate “low or minimal risk,” “moderate risk,” and “probable harm or high risk.”
2. Watch the award-winning 2018 documentary: Three Identical Strangers directed by Tim Wardle to learn about triplets named Edward Galland, David Kellman, and Robert Shafran who were separated at birth as part of an undisclosed study on the effects of nature versus nurture. Using this real-life story, identify examples of violations of respect for persons, concern for welfare, and justice.
3. Become an expert on the TCPS 2 (CIHR et al., 2022). The Government of Canada’s Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics offers an online tutorial for free: TCPS 2: CORE-2022 (Course on Research Ethics). This condensed course is designed to help researchers, members of research ethics boards, educators, students, and others become familiar with the TCPS 2. Upon completion, you will receive an official certification.
4. The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) supports Indigenous research. To learn about Indigenous-led research, visit Indigenous Research on the SSHRC website.

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

1. Locate and read: Burger, J. M. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? American Psychologist, 64(1), 1–11.
2. Describe the central research question and summarize the main procedures used to carry out the study on obedience.
3. Explain how the replication attempts to resolve for specific ethical implications raised in Milgram’s original experiment. Do you think the changes accomplish this? Why or why not?
4. If you were a member of an institutional ethics review board, would you grant approval to this study with no conditions, provide approval but require changes to the study, or fail to grant approval? Justify your answer by referencing the main ethical issues discussed in this chapter.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

1. For guidance on ethical issues related to visual forms of data, particularly in relation to data acquisition and data sharing, see Levin, M. et al. (2024). Visual digital data, ethical challenges, and psychological science. American Psychologist, 79(1), 109–122.
2. For information on ethical issues as they relate to visual representations in research, see “Ethics and visual research” in Banks, M., and Zeitlyn, D. (2015). Visual methods in social research (pp. 122–126). Sage.
3. To learn more about ethical dilemmas concerning qualitative research, see Gallagher, K. (Ed.). (2018). The methodological dilemma revisited: Creative, critical, and collaborative approaches to qualitative research for a new era. Routledge.
4. To read about the Tuskegee syphilis study in more detail, refer to Jones, J. H. (1993). Bad blood: The Tuskegee syphilis experiment. The Free Press, and Gray, F. D. (2013). The Tuskegee syphilis study. NewSouth Books.

— Christine Bachrach, 2007, p. 435

INTRODUCTION

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

Research in Action

Longitudinal Panel Study on Smokers’ Perceptions of Health Risks

Cho and colleagues (2018) examined changes in smokers’ perceptions about health risks following amendments to warning labels on cigarette packages using a longitudinal panel study. Four thousand six hundred and twenty-one smokers from Canada, Australia, Mexico, and the United States were surveyed every four months for a total of five times to determine if their knowledge of health risks increased after toxic constituents were added to pictorial health warning labels. Results showed that knowledge of toxic constituents such as cyanide and benzene increased over time and was associated with a stronger perceived risk of vulnerability to smoking-related diseases, including bladder cancer and blindness, for participants in Canada, Australia, and Mexico, but not the United States (Cho et al., 2018).

[caption id="attachment_1087" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Image 4.1 Warning labels are designed to increase smokers’ knowledge of health risks.[/caption]

CONCEPTUALIZATION AND OPERATIONALIZATION

Census family is defined as a married couple and the children, if any, of either and/or both spouses; a couple living common law and the children, if any, of either and/or both partners; or a parent of any marital status in a one-parent family with at least one child living in the same dwelling and that child or those children. All members of a particular census family live in the same dwelling. Children may be biological or adopted children regardless of their age or marital status as long as they live in the dwelling and do not have their own married spouse, common-law partner or child living in the dwelling. Grandchildren living with their grandparent(s) but with no parents present also constitute a census family. (para. 1)

MEASURING VARIABLES

Levels of Measurement

Activity: Sorting Levels of Measurement

Indexes versus Scales

CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING MEASUREMENT

RELIABILITY

Test-Retest Reliability

Split-Half Reliability

Inter-Rater Reliability

Inter-Item Reliability

VALIDITY

Face Validity

Content Validity

Construct Validity

Criterion Validity

Activity: Reliability and Validity

RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

RIGOUR IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Achieving Rigour through Triangulation

Other Means for Establishing Rigour

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Describe the main components of a research design. A research design details the main components of a study, including who (the unit of analysis), what (the attitudes or behaviours under investigation), where (the location), when (at one or multiple points in time), why (e.g., to explain), and how (the specific research method used).
2. Explain what conceptualization and operationalization processes entail. Conceptualization is the process whereby a researcher explains what a concept, such as family, or a construct, like social inequality, means within a research project. Operationalization is the process whereby a concept or construct is defined so precisely it can be measured in a study. For example, financial wealth can be operationalized as net yearly income in dollars.
3. Explain how the purpose of a variable is directly related to how it is measured in research. Variables are measured at the nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level. The nominal level of measurement is used to classify case, while the ordinal level has the property of classification and rank order. The interval level provides the ability to classify, order, and make precise comparisons as a function of equal intervals. The ratio level includes previous properties and a true zero. An index is a composite measure of a construct comprising several different indicators that produce a shared outcome, while a scale is a composite measure of a construct consisting of several different indicators that stem from a common cause.
4. Outline the main techniques used to assess reliability and validity. Reliability refers to consistency in measurement. Test-retest reliability examines consistency between the same measures for a variable at two different times using a correlation coefficient. Inter-rater reliability examines consistency between the same measures for a variable of interest provided by two different raters, often using Cohen’s kappa. Split-half reliability examines consistency between both halves of the measures for a variable of interest. Inter-item reliability involves demonstrated associations among multiple items representing a single construct. Validity refers to the extent to which a measure is a good indicator of the intended construct. Face validity refers to the extent to which an instrument appears to be a good measure of the intended construct. Content validity assesses the extent to which an instrument contains the full range of content pertaining to the intended construct. Construct validity assesses the extent to which an instrument is associated with other logically related measures of the intended construct. Criterion validity assesses the extent to which an instrument holds up to an external standard, such as the ability to predict future events.
5. Distinguish between random and systematic errors. Random errors are unintentional and usually result from careless mistakes, while systematic errors result from intentional bias. Sources of both types of errors include participants, researchers, and observers in a study. Errors can be reduced through training, the use of standardized procedures, and the simplification of tasks.
6. Explain how rigour is achieved in qualitative research. Rigour refers to a means for demonstrating integrity and competence in qualitative research. Rigour can be achieved using triangulation, member checks, extended experience in an environment, peer review, and audit trails.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

1. Suppose you want to conduct a quantitative study on the success of students at the post-secondary institution you are currently attending. List five variables that you think would be relevant for inclusion in the study. Generate one hypothesis you could test using two of the variables you’ve listed above. Operationalize the variables you included in your proposed hypothesis.
2. Studies on the health of individuals often operationalize health as self-reported health using these five fixed response categories: poor, fair, good, very good, and excellent. What level of measurement is this? Provide an example of health operationalized into two categories measured at the nominal level and three categories at the ordinal level. Is it possible to measure health at the interval level? Justify your answer.
3. Consider some of the variables that can be used to examine the construct of scholastic ability (e.g., grades, awards, and overall grade point average). Which measure do you think best represents scholastic ability? Is the measure reliable and/or valid? Defend your answer with examples that reflect student experiences.
4. Define the construct of honesty and come up with an indicator that could be used to gauge honesty. Compare your definition and indicator with those of at least three other students in the class. Are the definitions similar? Consider how each definition reflects a prior conceptualization process.

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

1. Item selection: Develop 10 statements that can be answered with a forced-choice response of yes or no, where yes responses will receive 1 point and no responses will be awarded 0 points. Select items that would serve as good indicators of students at risk for failing to complete their program of study. Think of behaviours or events that would put a student at risk for dropping out or being asked to leave a program, such as failing a required course. Make sure your items are one-dimensional (i.e., they only measure one behaviour or attitude).
2. Try out your index on a few of your classmates to see what scores you obtain for them. Is there any variability in the responses? Do some students score higher or lower than others?
3. Come up with a range of scores you feel represent no risk, low risk, moderate risk, and high risk. Justify your numerical scoring.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

1. For more information on the four types of validity discussed in this chapter, see Middleton, F. (2023, June 22). The 4 types of validity in research. Definitions and examples. Scribbr.
2. To learn more about rigour in research, refer to "The Feast Centre Learning Series: 'Rigour' in Research Proposals" at McMaster University.
3. For an in-depth look at scale development, see DeVellis, R. F. and Thorpe, C. T. (2022). Scale development: Theory and applications (5th ed.). Sage.
4. To learn about a new online gambling index based on 12 items, see Auer, M. et al. (2024). Development of the Online Problem Gaming Behavior Index. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 47(1), 81-92.

INTRODUCTION

POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES

SELECTING A SAMPLE

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Simple Random Sampling

1. Generate a complete list of all of individuals in the population.
2. Number every individual in the sampling frame.
3. Use a random numbers table to randomly select the sample of a specific size as described below.

Systematic Sampling

1. Generate a complete list of all of individuals in the population.
2. Number every individual in the sampling frame.
3. Calculate the sampling interval by dividing the population by the desired sample size.
4. Randomly select the first case. It should be a number between 1 and the size of the sampling interval. For the example above, it would involve randomly selecting a number between 1 and 977, such as 10.
5. Use every nth number after that (as denoted by the sampling interval) until the number of cases selected reaches the desired sample size. In this example, the sampling interval is 977. The first person included in the sample would be whoever is listed at 10, then 987, then 1964, 2941, and so on until the desired sample size is reached.

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Activity: Probability Sampling Techniques

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Representativeness

Sampling Error and Sample Size

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Purposive Sampling

Quota Sampling

Activity: Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Research in Action

RCMP Use Quota Sampling in Affirmative Action Hiring [caption id="attachment_1096" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Image 5.4 Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[/caption] To overcome disproportionate white male police officer prevalence in the workforce, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) endorses affirmative action practices in their recruitment of new officers. The underlying principle is that a modern and effective police force should be diverse and representative of the communities it serves (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2023). Using a method like quota sampling, certain members of the population are overemphasized in recruiting practices, including women, visible minorities, and First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The RCMP also funds various initiatives to assist youth and underrepresented populations, including a Diverse and Inclusive Pre-Cadet Experience (DICE) Program aimed at removing systemic barriers to RCMP careers for racialized and underrepresented individuals (Shaw, 2023). 

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Practicality

Generalizability

THEORETICAL SAMPLING

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Define sampling and differentiate between a population and a sample. Sampling is a technique used to acquire the unit of analysis from a population of interest. The sample is a subset of the population, which contains the complete set of individuals, scores, or objects of interest to the researcher.
2. Explain why a researcher might choose a probability-based sampling method and distinguish between simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling techniques. A researcher will likely employ a probability-based sampling method when a representative sample is desired and when a sampling frame can be made available. Simple random sampling is used to obtain a sample based on chance. A random sample is usually obtained using a random numbers table after a sampling frame is identified. Systematic sampling is also based on probability, except the sample is selected based on a fixed interval. First, the sampling frame is identified, and then a sampling interval is determined. After randomly selecting the first case, every nth case is chosen after that until the desired sample size is reached. Stratified sampling relies upon known population characteristics of interest. A researcher divides the population into groups based on features such as age, employment status, or location and then randomly samples for a certain number of cases from each group. Finally, cluster sampling involves selected groups rather than individual cases, often to accommodate a population that is spread over a vast geographic area from which it is not feasible to randomly sample individual cases. For example, to obtain a sample of individuals living in remote communities, a researcher might first create a sampling frame of remote community clusters based on geographic area and then randomly select clusters that will be included in the sample.
3. Identify the main advantages and disadvantages of probability-based sampling techniques. The advantage of probability-based techniques is that they produce representative samples that closely resemble populations of interest. This means generalizations or inferences can be more readily made from samples to populations of interest. However, since samples are not exact replicas of populations, generalizations need to be made with caution, as there are still differences that result from measurement error. Larger samples help to increase accuracy and confidence that the sample will contain the relevant population parameters.
4. Explain why a researcher might choose a non-probability-based sampling method and distinguish between convenience, snowball, purposive, and quota sampling techniques. Sometimes populations are hard to locate or are hidden, making it impossible to identify the needed sampling frame used in probability-based techniques. Convenience sampling is a non-probability method in which individuals (or cases) are selected based on availability. Snowball sampling is a non-probability method that begins with a few cases selected by convenience, followed by referrals resulting from the original cases. Purposive sampling involves a combination of techniques used to obtain all possible cases that possess characteristics of interest to researchers. Finally, quota sampling is a method in which certain individuals are selected to try and replicate characteristics that are known to exist in the population of interest.
5. Identify the main advantages and disadvantages of non-probability-based techniques. Overall, non-probability sampling methods are practical in many cases, as they are less costly and less time consuming than probability-based techniques. It is also not always possible or even desirable to use probability sampling. In some cases, a sampling frame is unknown and therefore a non-probability method must be employed to study a hidden or hard-to-reach population. The main disadvantage is that the sample is not representative of the population. This means findings are generally limited to the sample itself.
6. Explain how theoretical sampling differs from probability- and non-probability-based sampling techniques. Theoretical sampling is a concept-driven method for obtaining data in qualitative research. Data collection and analysis sometimes uncovers important concepts that warrant further exploration in a process that leads to eventual theory development. To learn more about the concepts, additional research is necessary, which entails additional sampling methods to acquire new participants or cases. Since the sampling emerges out of data analysis, the population is not identified ahead of time, as is the case with probability-based techniques. There is also no prior intent to obtain a sample of a certain size or with certain features.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

1. Think of a topic of interest that would be suitable to examine if students at your university constituted the population under investigation. Write three questions that would help you learn more about your topic of interest. Interview a couple of students in class to obtain information on your topic. Did the sample of students you talked to make up a suitable sample? Why or why not? Given your specific topic and interests, which sampling method would be ideal? Defend your answer.
2. Identify a practice in everyday life that involves simple random sampling. Explain your answer.
3. Suppose your post-secondary institution has 2,400 instructors. The president decides to systematically sample 200 instructors for suggestions on how to improve office space and working conditions.
   1. What would be the sampling interval?
   2. If the number 6 was randomly drawn for a starting point, what would be the next five numbers for inclusion in the sample?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

1. Go to Statistics Canada’s 2023 Survey on COVID-19 and Mental Health (SCMH).
2. Locate the survey’s information on “Data sources and methodology.” Read the description of the target population, instrument design, and sampling sections to answer the following questions:
   1. Who is the target population?
   2. Was a probability- or non-probability-based sampling method used?
   3. Which specific sampling technique was used?
   4. What was the sample size?
3. Why do you suppose this sampling technique was utilized?
4. What was the response rate for this survey?

RESEARCH RESOURCES

1. For an overview of sampling in a wide variety of contexts (e.g., social sciences, business, and health), see Lohr, S. L. (2022). Sampling: Design and analysis (3rd ed.). CRC Press.
2. To learn about food insecurity among Canadian youth, see Dubelt-Moroz, A. et al., (2022). Food insecurity, dietary intakes, and eating behaviors in a convenience sample of Toronto youth. Children, 9(8), 1119-1131.
3. For a detailed discussion on theoretical sampling, refer to chapter 7 in Corbin, J., and Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research (4th ed.). Sage.
4. To consider issues related to the use of convenience and purposive samples, see Andrade's (2021) article: The inconvenient truth about convenience and purposive samples. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 43(1), 86–88.

— Steve Albini[footnote]Opening quote retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/.[/footnote]

INTRODUCTION

CAUSALITY, CONTROL, AND RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

Activity: Components of Experimental Research

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Classic Experimental Design

Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs

Quasi-Experimental Designs

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

Selection

History

Maturation

Selection by Maturation Interaction

Experimental Mortality

Testing

Instrumentation

Statistical Regression

THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Experimenter Bias

Participant Reactivity

Unrepresentative Samples

Activity: Threats to Validity

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Describe the rationale underlying an experimental method. In an experiment, at least one independent variable is manipulated by a researcher to measure its effects (if any) on a dependent variable.
2. Identify the criteria needed to establish causality and explain which features of an experiment support the testing of cause–effect relationships. To establish causality, two variables must be related in a logical way, the presumed cause must precede the effect in time, and the cause should be the most plausible, ruling out rival explanations. Strict control over the environment and random assignment to the experimental and control group helps to ensure that the only difference between the two groups results from the independent variable.
3. Differentiate between basic and classic experimental designs; explain how exposure to the independent variable differs in between-subjects versus within-subjects designs; and explain why some designs are classified as quasi-experimental. A basic experimental design includes random assignment, an experiment and control group, the manipulation of an independent variable experienced by the experimental group, and the measurement of a dependent variable. A classic experiment includes these features along with a pre-test measure of the dependent variable prior to the manipulation of the independent variable. In a between-subjects design, participants in the experimental group are exposed to only one level of the independent variable. In a within-subjects design, participants in the experimental group are exposed to all levels of the independent variable. A quasi-experimental design lacks one of the features of a true experiment, such as random assignment or a control group.
4. Define internal and external validity. Internal validity is the capacity to demonstrate an experimental effect and to rule out rival explanations for that effect. External validity refers to the generalizability of the effect beyond a given experiment to other people in other settings at other times.
5. Identify and describe potential threats to internal validity. This chapter discusses eight threats to validity: (1) selection refers to methods used to obtain groups that can result in differences prior to the experimental manipulation; (2) history refers to changes in the dependent variable attributed to external events occurring between the first and second measurement; (3) maturation refers to changes in dependent measure that result from processes within the research participants; (4) selection by maturation interaction refers to a combined effect of initial differences in the groups and maturation; (5) experimental mortality refers to the course of participant drop-out over time; (6) testing refers to changes in the dependent variables that result from experience gained on the pre-test; (7) instrumentation refers to any changes in the way the dependent variable is measured; and (8) statistical regression refers to differences produced by the tendency for extreme scores to become less extreme.
6. Identify and describe potential threats to external validity. This chapter discusses three threats to external validity: (1) experimenter bias exists when researchers influence the behaviour of research participants in a manner that favours the outcomes they anticipate; (2) participant reactivity refers to the tendency for research participants to act differently during a study simply because they are aware that they are participating in a research study; and (3) unrepresentative samples, such as introductory psychology students or other groups that self-select into experiments, are likely different in important ways from the population of interest.

RESEARCH REFLECTIONS

1. 1. Visit the home page for Psychological Research on the Net. This website, maintained by John H. Krantz, Ph.D., lists ongoing web-based psychology experiments by general topic (e.g., mental health, gender, cyber). Select a recently added study of interest to you and do the following:
      1. List the name of the study and the affiliated primary researcher(s).
      2. Describe the purpose of the study as identified in the associated consent form.
      3. Outline the procedures for potential participants.
      4. Based on details provided about the study, describe one potential threat to internal or external validity discussed in this chapter that could impact the results of your selected study.
   2. Go to “Sheldon and Amy’s Date Night Experiment—The Big Bang Theory” on YouTube to watch a short clip from the popular television series. In this clip, Amy sets up an experiment to test whether events associated with fond memories for Sheldon can be directed toward her, so she can accelerate their intimate relationship.
      1. Does the experimental design used by Amy fit the criteria for a true experimental design? Why or why not?
      2. Why is it impossible to prove causality in this instance?
      3. What recommendations would you make to Amy to improve upon her design, so she could be more confident that her manipulation is working?
   3. Read the following article: Rodríguez Fuentes et al. (2023). University coaching experience and academic performance. Education Sciences, 13(3), 248.
      1. Why was a quasi-experimental design used in this study?
      2. What is the main independent variable and how was it manipulated?
      3. What is the main dependent variable and how was it measured?
      4. Does coaching improve academic performance? What features of this study increase your confidence in the findings?
      5. Are there any potential threats to internal or external validity relevant to this study? Explain your response.

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

1. Pair up with someone else in class.
2. Discuss whether you believe people can accurately identify their preferred food or beverage brands from among a sample of competitors’ brands.
3. Come up two testable hypotheses of interest related to specific taste preferences. For example, H1: Participants will be able to identify their stated cola preference in a blind taste test between Pepsi and Coke.
4. Reflecting on threats to internal validity, identify factors that you think might influence taste and how you might control for these in your experimental design.
5. Write a detailed procedure section describing how you would design a study to test one of your hypotheses. Provide enough detail so that others could replicate it. See below for some considerations to address in your procedures section:
   • What materials will need to carry out this study?
   • How will you order the presentation of the beverages or food items?
   • What sort of instructions will you give participants?
   • How will you measure preference?

RESEARCH RESOURCES

1. For students and researchers with statistical proficiency who want to learn more about research designs for special circumstances and about more complex experimental designs, refer to chapters 10 and 11 in Cozby, P. C. et al., (2020). Methods in behavioural research (3rd Canadian ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
2. To learn about independent-groups, dependent-groups, and single-participant designs, see chapters 7 to 9 in Rooney, B. J., and Evans, A. N. (2019). Methods in psychological research (4th ed.). Sage.
3. For advice on conducting experimental research online using open-source software, see Peirce, J., Hirst, R., & MacAskill, M. (2022). Building experiments in PsychoPy (2nd ed.). Sage.
4. For a critique and re-evaluation of Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison study, check out Michael Stevens’ The Stanford Prison Experiment video (part of Mind Field Season 3 Episode 4) posted to YouTube posted on December 19, 2018.