Title: Working with information

STEM icon. Created by Stefaniada Voichita. Use under CC 4.0 BY-NC.

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Introduction

Lesson 4: Working with information

Please select the sidebar’s tabs on the left or use the navigations controls to progress through the lesson.

Navigation instructions

- It is recommended that you use Google Chrome or Safari browsers for this lesson.
- Please select the lesson's tabs on the left-hand sidebar to progress through the content.
- Use the < Prev. and Next > buttons to go from one slide to another.
- Select the Check button to submit your answers and get feedback.

Keyboard navigation

- Use Tab + Enter keys on your keyboard to go to the next slides and Shift + Tab + Enter to go to the previous slides.
- Use Tab and Up/Down or Left/Right arrows to navigate & Enter or Spacebar to activate menus (e.g., turn rotatable cards, multicards, drop-down cards).
- For activities, use Tab & Up/Down or Left/Right arrows to select options, Enter or Spacebar keys to submit answers for feedback (e.g., multiple-choice, true/false), or drop draggable options onto the desired drop areas (e.g., drag and drop).

It should take you approximately 10 minutes to complete the lesson.

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Learning outcomes:

- Identify appropriate sources of information and evidence.
- Understand the importance of citing other people’s work.
- Differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate uses of information.
- Recognize the importance of knowing your instructor’s requirements.

Identifying appropriate sources of information

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As STEM students, the information you need to complete your assignments and that you will use once you’re finished school might come in a variety of forms from a variety of different places. In this module you will learn strategies to help you navigate this information and identify appropriate sources and evidence.

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Critical appraisal

Critical appraisal originated in the field of health research as a way to guide researchers through the process of evaluating information.

Critical appraisal involves critiquing information sources using a systematic approach to identify their strengths and weaknesses. Part of this process also includes reflecting on how useful the information will be to your own research.

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Evaluating information using RADAR

RADAR is a tool that you can use to guide you through the process of critical appraisal.

The RADAR framework includes a series of questions designed to help you determine the quality and usefulness of a source.

ⓘ RADAR breaks information evaluation into 5 criteria, one for each letter in RADAR.

The 5 RADAR criteria are:

Relevance

The information source you choose should be relevant to your research because your ideas should be supported by information that is pertinent and meaningfully related to your research.

For example, a source that describes Stephen Hawking’s childhood would not be very relevant to a paper about his scientific theories.

Studies have shown that students often select sources from the first few results they find and may not put in the extra time required to find highly relevant sources (Asher et al., 2013; Hamlett & Georgas, 2019; Porter, 2011; Wertz et al., 2013).

Just because a source is at the top of the list of search engine results doesn’t automatically make it the most relevant source for your research. By critically evaluating the relevance of a source and looking beyond the first few related results you find, you can make sure your arguments are supported by high quality evidence that will strengthen your work.

ⓘ Keep in mind that relevance is just one part of the RADAR framework. While you are considering a source’s relevance, you should be considering the other elements of RADAR as well. For example, a highly relevant blog post written by an anonymous author on an unofficial looking website would not be considered a high-quality source.

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- Why was this information created/published?
- Who is the intended audience?
- How is this information related to the task at hand?
- How does this information help me accomplish my goals and/or answer my research question?

Guiding questions

Authority

The information source you choose should be written by a credible author. A good way to judge an author’s credibility is to think about what authority or expertise or experience they have on a topic. For example, the Chief Public Health Officer of Canada is an authority on public health but would not be considered an authority on electrical engineering.

While an author’s credentials can be a helpful indication of the authority they have on a topic, experts in STEM may not always have advanced degrees. For example, some of the world’s top tech executives, like Bill Gates or Steve Jobs, never finished their degrees. While Bill Gates and Steve Jobs are obvious experts despite their lack of degrees, this distinction may not always be so clear.

When you’re thinking through the guiding questions, consider the type of information you’re using, the assignment you’re using it for, and your instructor’s expectations. Is it important that your source have advanced degrees in this context?

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- Who created the information? Was it one person or many people? Was it a government? A corporation? A non-profit?
- How might the context in which the information was produced affect the credibility of it?
- What is the reputation of the author(s)? Do they do work in this field often? Who are they affiliated with? Have other people cited this work or author?

Guiding questions

Date

Information moves fast, especially in STEM disciplines, so it is important to make sure you’re using the most current information. Keeping an eye on the date of a source can help you avoid using outdated information.

ⓘ Not all assignments or disciplines require the most current information. Older materials can show the origins of a theory, idea, or discovery and be useful for historical research. In certain disciplines, the date of a source is less important.

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- When was the information created or last updated?
- Is currency important to this question or discipline?
- Could this information be outdated or superseded by more recent findings?
- Is this a landmark piece of work that is well known in the field?
- Could this work be useful for historical context or comparison?

Guiding questions

Appearance & Accuracy

The appearance of a source can help you identify what type of source it is, and can give you clues about its context.

The accuracy of a source is important because errors and false information will lead you in the wrong direction and could distort your reasoning. Presenting inaccurate information undermines your own credibility as a student or researcher.

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- Is the information presented professionally and/or academically?
- Are there clear editing errors such as spelling, grammar, or typos?
- Does the author use outside sources to strengthen claims? Are the outside sources reliable?
- Does the presentation follow the appropriate scholarly formats?
- Has this information been peer-reviewed?

Guiding questions

Appearance & Accuracy

Reason

The reason a source was created is important because books, articles, webpages, and other information sources are usually created to serve a purpose. That purpose might include educating, entertaining, or to sell a product or point of view. Being aware of the reason a source was created may help you identify sources that provide inaccurate, false, or biased information.

Different points of view can still be valid as long as they are based on good reasoning and careful use of evidence.

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- Why has the information been made available? To inform, sell, educate, entertain, or convince?
- How has the information been presented? A book, an academic journal, a popular magazine, a website, or a trade periodical?
- What type of information is this? Is it new research? Is it an experiment, research study, theoretical model, case study, opinion piece, propaganda, or something else?
- Who has funded this research? Is this stated?
- Has the information been written with an objective or impartial point of view? Is it biased?
- Has the author included their methodology, population, and/or data? Is it appropriate?

Guiding questions

Adapted from Mandalios (2013) and William H. Hannon Library (2018).

Check your knowledge

While working on a paper on climate change, you find NASA’s Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet page. The page contains facts and figures about climate change and a list of references with recent dates, but no author name.

Which elements of RADAR would this source satisfy?

Q: Which elements of RADAR would this source satisfy? Select all that apply.
- A) Relevance. (correct) (Correct! Facts and figures about climate change are likely very relevant to your paper.)
- B) Authority. (correct) (Correct! Although the exact author is unknown, the organization presenting the information (NASA) is highly authoritative, which means the information can probably be trusted.)
- C) Date. (correct) (Correct! Although the page date may not be available, if the references are recent, you can assume the page is as well.)
- D) Appearance & Accuracy. (correct) (Correct! The site URL is official, the page looks official, and references have been given.)
- E) Reason. (correct) (Correct! The reason for this page is to provide information for educational purposes.)
- F) Format. (Incorrect! There is no format in the RADAR tool.)

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Peer review

Peer reviewed sources include journal articles (and sometimes books) that are reviewed by experts in the field before being published. Peer reviewers send their feedback to the author(s) and may request changes to improve the work.

This process of peer review is intended to produce higher quality research, and because of this, you may encounter instructors who prefer for you to use these sources when completing your assignments.

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Where to find peer-reviewed sources

If you have been asked to use peer reviewed sources in your assignment, try searching:

Your University’s library databases

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Many of the databases your university’s library subscribes to allow you to search through thousands of peer-reviewed journal articles. Some even allow you to limit your search to show peer-reviewed sources only.

Your university’s library databases

Google Scholar

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This can also be a useful place to look for peer reviewed journal articles, but not every article you find here will be reliable or peer-reviewed.

Tip: You may be able to link Google Scholar to your university’s library collection to access pay-to-view articles for free! Go to Google Scholar’s Settings, then Library links to link to your institution.

Google Scholar

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Use your RADAR skills!

Although peer-reviewed articles are more likely to contain high quality information, these sources may still be dated or could end up being removed or retracted from the journal.

Just because an article is peer-reviewed does not automatically make it good/useful/applicable information.

You should still be using your RADAR skills to critically appraise peer-reviewed sources to ensure you’re using the best information for your work.

Appropriate use of sources

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Once you’ve found high quality sources to use in your work, you’ll need to know how to properly use them. Let's focus on strategies to differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate uses of information.

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Citing

What is citing?

Information plays a significant role across STEM fields by helping to shape questions, generate hypotheses, analyze and interpret data, and report findings.

Citation is the practice of acknowledging how the work of others has influenced your thinking, design, and communication.

ⓘ Citations are expected of all researchers, scientists, and professionals across areas of study and settings!

Why do we cite?

To give credit

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ⓘ Ethically, it is your responsibility to give credit when you use someone else’s idea or research.

When you take credit for something that is not yours you prevent the person who did the work from receiving the credit they deserve. This makes the researcher/creator’s work seem less important than it is, which could negatively impact their careers.

To help readers locate the information

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ⓘ Citations help your readers find the information that you are using in your work.

This makes it easier for them to:

- Fact check: Critical readers may want to double check the accuracy of the information you use. Facilitating fact checking makes your work more reliable.
- Learn more: Your work may inspire your readers to learn more about the concepts or findings you describe. Citations contain the information your readers will need to identify and find the source.

To help readers locate the information

To document the progression of ideas

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In STEM disciplines, the discoveries of today are built upon the findings of yesterday. The research community needs to be able to track how theories change and ideas progress. Good citation practices help STEM researchers build and reflect upon the evidence of past research.

To document the progression of ideas

To add credibility to your work

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Providing references also shows the research you did on the topic and your understanding of how the topic fits into the wider context. This indicates that you understand your field. You are proving your points with evidence, creating a credible argument, and this increases the persuasiveness of your argument.

To add credibility to your work

Check your knowledge

Which elements of RADAR would this source satisfy?

Q: Who benefits from citations? Select all that apply.
- A) You. (correct) (Correct! When you use proper citations, you make your own work stronger.)
- B) The original author. (correct) (Correct! Citing gives credit to the researcher(s) who did the original work.)
- C) Your reader/audience. (correct) (Correct! Citing helps your reader see where your evidence came from and follow the development of your ideas or arguments.)
- D) Your research area/discipline. (correct) (Correct! Citing shows the progression of ideas and allows others to build on your work, making the research area/discipline stronger.)
- E) Your bookstore. (Incorrect! Citing does not affect in any way your bookstore.)

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Intellectual property

If you are quoting small portions of text or paraphrasing someone else’s ideas, citing your sources will be enough, but if you’re using an image, video, datasets, or course materials, you may also need permission to use someone else’s intellectual property.

Intellectual property is defined as:

“Chiefly Law property (such as patents, trademarks, and copyright material) which is the product of invention or creativity.” (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.).

In other words, intellectual property protects your ideas.

Copyright or patent is applied to the physical form your ideas take. For example, intellectual property covers the following:

- Music.
- Course materials (e.g., course packs, lecture content, assignment questions/solutions, tests/exams etc.).
- Pictures.
- Data.
- Written text.
- Movies.

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Keep in mind!

If you didn’t originally create it, then it is not yours. It belongs to someone else and you likely need permission to use or share it.

Please select the Note card for more details.

Note

ⓘ This information is intended for general introductory use and you should consult an attorney for legal advice on intellectual property or copyright.

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Intellectual property and course materials

ⓘ Academic materials are the intellectual property of the instructor/the copyright in the work belongs to the instructor or the school, meaning you should not share them beyond your course.

You can share what your instructor has shared with your classmates, such as slides or notes, but it is inappropriate to:

- Sell or giveaway your notes to others outside your class.
- Post or share assignment questions and answers.
- Distribute or copy test or exam questions.

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The consequences for these actions can be very serious!

You worked hard to make it into post-secondary school, you pay tuition to access the expertise of your instructors and to complete rigorous assessment and training, AND you are working hard to complete your degree or diploma. Protect your investment!

Check your knowledge

Fill in the blanks with the words appropriate or inappropriate.

Fill in the blanks with the words 'appropriate' or 'inappropriate' to identify intellectual property best practices.

Q: Giving all your notes, and assignments and answers to a student who plans to take the course in future is [...].

Checking with a classmate about the length of an assignment or a due date is [...].

Asking a librarian about a citation style for your field is [...].

Posting a copy of a previous exam on the internet is [...].

Using someone else’s full dataset to complete your own research without asking them for permission is [...].

Clarifying with your instructor about what course materials you can share with others is [...].

Using a photo you found online in a way that respects the author’s permissions (e.g., use with attribution) is [...].
A: inappropriate; appropriate; appropriate; inappropriate; inappropriate; appropriate; appropriate

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Your instructor’s requirements

It is important to remember that your instructors will have requirements and preferences for how you conduct research, present your work, and share information.

These include:

- What is considered an appropriate source of information or evidence.
- What citation style you should use.
- When you are required to give credit to an author or source.
- What types of information do not require citation.
- How to respect intellectual property.
- What you can and cannot share as a student in the course.

For STEM examples, select the corresponding discipline tab below.

Computer science examples

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For example, computer code is often built from pre-existing work of others. Ensure that you know how your instructor expects you to give credit to the original creator/author. Many students like to showcase their coding skills by posting solutions on the internet. Before you post something from your course make sure to ask the instructor if you are allowed.

Engineering example

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For example, design solutions are often built from pre-existing work of others. Ensure that you know how your instructor expects you to give credit to the original creator/author. Sometimes students share their answers to assignments on the internet. Before you post something from your course make sure to ask the instructor if you are allowed.

Engineering example

Mathematics example

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For example, formulas and algorithms are often built from pre-existing work of others. Ensure that you know how your instructor expects you to give credit to the original creator/author. Sometimes students share their answers to assignments on the internet. Before you post something from your course make sure to ask the instructor if you are allowed.

Mathematics example

Science example

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For example, lab experiments are often built from pre-existing work of others. Ensure that you know how your instructor expects you to give credit to the original creator/author. Sometimes students share their answers to experiments on the internet. Before you post something from your course make sure to ask the instructor if you are allowed.

Science example

Module 4: wrap up

In this module you learned about:

- How to critical appraisal and RADAR to identify appropriate sources of information.
- What peer-reviewed sources are and where you can find them.
- Why citing is important.
- What intellectual property is and how it applies to course materials.

Check your knowledge

To reflect on what you’ve learned, try filling in these blanks:

Q: Before posting anything from my course onto the [...], I should get permission from my instructor. A [...] can help me find appropriate sources of information/evidence. [...] are used to give credit to the original author/owner of the work. When someone creates something, it becomes their [...].
If I’m not sure whether a source I’ve found in appropriate for an assignment, I should ask my [...].
A: internet; librarian; citations; intellectual property; instructor

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Congratulations!

You’ve completed the 4th Academic Integrity in STEM module.

References

Asher, A.D., Duke, L.M., & Wilson, S. (2013). Paths of discovery: Comparing the search effectiveness of EBSCO discovery service, Summon, Google Scholar, and conventional library resources. College & Research Libraries, 74(5), 464-488. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-374

Hamlett, A. & Goergas, H. (2019). In the wake of discovery: Student perceptions, integration, and instructional design. Journal of Web Librarianship, 13(3), 230-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/19322909.2019.1598919

Mandalios, J. (2013). RADAR: An approach for helping students evaluate Internet sources. Journal Of Information Science, 39, 470-478. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0165551513478889

Oxford English Dictionary. (n.d.). Intellectual Property. Retrieved July 21, 2021 from https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/97387?rskey=uwTNPb&result=1#eid139181256

Porter, B. (2011). Millennial undergraduate research strategies in web and library information retrieval systems. Journal of Web Librarianship, 5(4), 267-285.https://doi.org/10.1080/19322909.2011.623538

Wertz, R.E.H., Purzer, S., Fosmire, M.J., & Cardella, M.E. (2013). Assessing information literacy skills demonstrated in an engineering design task. Journal of Engineering Education, 102(4), 577-602. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20024

William H. Hannon Library. (2018, June 28). Evaluating sources: Using the RADAR framework. Loyola Marymount University. Retrieved from http://libguides.lmu.edu/aboutRADAR

University of New South Wales. (2019). Why is Referencing Important? Retrieved June 23, 2021, from https://www.student.unsw.edu.au/why-referencing-important

Credit and licensing

Content Creators: Amanda McKenzie, Erin Nearing, Maria Barichello, Rebecca Hutchinson, Stephanie Mutch, and Kari D. Weaver.

Instructional and Graphic Designers: Stefaniada Voichita, Hiba Zubairi, Cathy Sebastian, Anthony Maocheia-Ricci, Mike Chee, and Kari D. Weaver.

Additional feedback was generously contributed by many faculty, staff, and students at the University of Waterloo, McMaster University, Queen’s University, and the University of Guelph.

This module was created with financial support from a 2021 eCampus Ontario Virtual Learning Strategy Grant and is licensed under a Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution-Non Commercial License (CC 4.0 BY-NC).

Attribution may be indicated as follows:
McKenzie, A., Nearing, E., Barichello, M., Hutchinson, R., Mutch, S., Weaver, K. D., Voichita, S., Chee, M., Zubairi, H., Sebastian, C., & Maocheia-Ricci, A. (2022). Working with information. eCampus Ontario. Link to repository. Used under CC 4.0 BY-NC.

For more information or to request permission for a non-licensed use, please email academic.integrity@uwaterloo.ca

Territorial acknowledgement

This project was led by individuals who live and work in Waterloo, which is the traditional territory of the Neutral, Anishinaabeg and Haudenosaunee peoples. The University of Waterloo’s main campus is situated on the Haldimand Tract, the land granted to the Six Nations that includes six miles on each side of the Grand River. Our active work toward reconciliation takes place across our campuses through research, learning, teaching, and community building, and is centralized within our Indigenous Initiatives Office .