Title: Citing Your Sources

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Introduction

Lesson 5: Citing your sources

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It should take you approximately 10 minutes to complete the lesson.

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Learning outcomes:

- Recognizing plagiarism.
- Distinguish when citing is needed vs. what is common knowledge.
- Distinguish between proper and improper paraphrasing practices.
- Select and use the appropriate citation style to accurately report information and create citations.
- Appropriately use and cite information presented in a range of formats and from a variety of sources and professional life.

Knowing when to cite and recognizing plagiarism

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Citing your sources is very important.

Citations let the reader know who owns the work or who is the original author. Not citing the owner of the work is an academic offence called: Plagiarism.

Plagiarism is defined as “The action or practice of taking someone else's work, idea, etc., and passing it off as one's own; literary theft.” (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.).

The following segment is to assist you in determining when citing is needed and what should be considered common knowledge so not to engage in plagiarism.

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Common Knowledge

Common knowledge refers to information that is well known or widely established. In academic writing, you do not have to cite common knowledge because it isn’t a unique idea or discovery of a specific person or group, and because your audience is probably already aware of it. For example, the chemical symbol for water (H2O) is something that it is reasonable to assume most people already know and therefore, it does not need to be cited.

ⓘ These practices do not apply to mathematical problems across your courses where you are expected to work on and arrive at an independent solution.

What is common knowledge

When considering whether or not something qualifies as common knowledge, ask yourself:

- Who is the audience of my work?
- What can I assume most people in this audience already know?
- Will I be asked about where I found this information?

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While in school, common knowledge is considered to be anything that your peers are familiar with, or facts that most of your classmates are likely to know. Ask yourself, would my classmate need to look this information up? If the answer is yes, you should probably cite that information.

ⓘ Remember, as your audience changes what is considered common knowledge will also change. What is considered common knowledge in one field might not be considered common knowledge in another. Therefore, what is considered common knowledge in one of your classes may not be considered common knowledge in a different class.

When you find information in a specialized source, like a journal article or white paper, you should carefully consider whether it counts as common knowledge. These sources often present new discoveries, scientific breakthroughs, and/or unique theories, none of which would be considered common knowledge.

Finally, as a student it is especially important to consider whether your instructor will want to know where you found the information you’re using. Will citing help them see that your ideas are based on strong evidence? Do they need to see you’ve done your research? Will they want to fact check this information?

ⓘ Ask your instructor what their requirements are if you are unsure.

There are some types of information that are never considered common knowledge or are only considered common knowledge in very specific circumstances.

What is not common knowledge

Data sets

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If the data was collected by another researcher, you should cite that source.

Data sets

Statistics

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They are very specific numbers that can change over time and between reporting organizations; therefore, these numbers should always be cited.

Graphs, figures, tables, and images

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Visual images, including those that contain data, like graphs and tables, were created by a specific person at a specific time, and should therefore always include a citation. Even if an image is well known, it cannot be counted as common knowledge.

Graphs, figures, tables, and images

Studies by other researchers

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When you reference the work of others you should give them credit for their contributions by citing their work.

Studies by other researchers

Specific definitions

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Describing something that is well known could qualify as common knowledge, however, if you are using the same phrasing as the definition source, you should cite that source.

Specific definitions

Ideas, theories, and opinions of others

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In most cases, you should be citing the ideas, theories, and opinions of others when you use them in your own work. However, if most of your audience is likely to know and agree with a popular idea, theory, or opinion, it may qualify as common knowledge.

For example, to a group of scientists, the claim that humans are causing climate change may be considered common knowledge, but opinions may vary in a more general audience. The general audience may want to see evidence (a citation) that supports that claim.

Ideas, theories, and opinions of others

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When in doubt, cite!

Sometimes it can be difficult to decide whether something counts as common knowledge. If you’re not 100% sure it’s common knowledge, cite it!

ⓘ It’s always safer to cite something that didn’t need to be cited than to risk being accused of plagiarism! Asking your instructor or TA ahead of time is an excellent approach to identify common knowledge.

Facts of common knowledge in the STEM fields

Common knowledge in computer science

In computer science, if you are using a function, algorithm, or code that you did not create yourself you should give credit to the creator by citing it. This general rule applies to code you learn in class or that you find in your textbooks. Remember: It is not enough to change variable names or cosmetic non-algorithm elements; you must still cite this code.

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Examples

- You may be asked to verbally present your coding project, or to write a short abstract explaining your code. If your code includes ideas or algorithms derived from others’ work, you must cite such parts in both your presentation and abstract. For instance, if you build a frame based on Dijkstra’s algorithm, then you must cite the algorithm even if it’s only a part of your work. The exception to this rule, is “common knowledge” code, or code that is commonly used and known by most programmers.
- Programmers traditionally use a “hello world” program when they are first learning to code. Since most programmers are aware of “hello world” this code is considered common knowledge. Your instructor may have specific requirements regarding the re-use of code. It’s always a good idea to ask your instructor about what is acceptable in their class.

Check your knowledge

Common knowledge in computer science?

Q: Which of the following would be considered common knowledge in computer science? Select all that apply.
- A) Python is a programming language. (correct) (Correct! This is common knowledge.)
- B) The new x-PACS approach for interpreting anomalies. (This is not common knowledge.)
- C) The difference between functional and object-oriented programming. (correct) (Correct! This is common knowledge.)
- D) Source code found on GitHub. (This is not common knowledge.)

Common knowledge in engineering

In engineering, you will often be required to cite the work that inspired your designs, but some of the information you include in your assignments may count as common knowledge.

For engineers whose work could be viewed by a variety of different audiences, it is especially important to consider what your audience is likely to know to determine what should be considered common knowledge.

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Examples

- If you are completing an assignment for class, common knowledge is what your classmates are likely to know.
- If you are a first-year student, just learning about the differences between various structures, you may have to cite when you describe how a truss bridge and a suspension bridge differ. Would your classmate have to look that information up? If so, then it is not common knowledge.
- However, if you are in the final year of your degree and the differences between common structures are well known to you and your classmates, this information may now qualify as common knowledge.

Check your knowledge

Check your knowledge

Q: Which of the following would be considered common knowledge in engineering? Select all that apply.
- A) What computer aided design is and what it’s used for. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- B) The equations for determining shear and normal stress. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- C) Designs for a new walking aid for children. (This is not common knowledge.)
- D) Symbols for drawing basic circuit schematics. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)

Common knowledge in engineering

Common knowledge in math

In math, theorems could be considered common knowledge depending on how well known they are.

It may be helpful to think about where you found the information. Formulas that can be found in your textbooks or general encyclopedias are usually well known enough to be considered common knowledge. If you’re explaining the theory or formula created by a specific researcher or research group, you will need to cite them. Therefore, if you found the information in a journal article or other advanced/specialized source you will probably need to cite that information.

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Examples

- A well-known formula that could be found in most textbooks, like the formula for the slope of a line (m=y2-y1/x2-x1) could be considered common knowledge.
- However, if you’re describing a unique or complex relationship or using a proof that you found in a journal article or more advanced book, this would not be considered common knowledge and would require a citation.

Check your knowledge

Common knowledge in Math

Q: Which of the following would be considered common knowledge in math? Select all that apply.
- A) The quadratic formula x = [-b +/- sqrt{b^2 – 4ac}] / 2a. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- B) What linear independence is. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- C) Pythagorean theorem (a2+b2=c2). (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- D) Novel problem approaches from online communities such as StackExchange (assuming use of such communities is permitted by the course instructor). (This is not common knowledge.)

Common knowledge in math

Common knowledge in science

With so many different areas of specialization in science, common knowledge can take a variety of forms. For example, what might be considered common knowledge to a chemist might not be considered common knowledge to a physicist. If it’s something your classmates would know without having to look up, or something you might find in an introductory undergraduate textbook, it can probably be considered common knowledge.

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Examples

- In science, widely known facts can be considered common knowledge, like the that the chemical formula for salt is NaCl.
- Widely agreed upon theories can also be considered common knowledge, like the Big Bang theory’s explanation for the beginning of the universe.
- Information well known within the discipline you are writing for can also be considered common knowledge. For instance, to a biologist the fact that all cells are enclosed in living protoplasm may be considered common knowledge, but to non-biologists and general audiences this may be new/unknown information.

Check your knowledge

Common knowledge in science

Q: Which of the following would be considered common knowledge in science? Select all that apply.
- A) (Physics) – the second law of motion: F=ma. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- B) (Biology) – there are 27 bones in a human hand. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- C) (Chemistry) – the law of mass action and the equation that expresses it. (correct) (This is common knowledge.)
- D) (Environmental science) – the ocean absorbs 7.2 to 10.8 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year. (This is not common knowledge because this is a statistic provided by a specific source.)

Common knowledge in science

Do I need to cite this?

Download and review the Should I cite this infographic PDF for more details.

Should I cite this

Incorporating outside sources

There are two main ways to add outside sources to your work:

1. Quoting.
2. Paraphrasing.

ⓘ Every work you cite, whether you have quoted something or paraphrased something, must also be listed in a reference list at the end of your paper.

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Quoting

Is when you incorporate an idea from an outside source using the author’s exact words.

Why quote?

- A direct quote is ideal when how the author phrased their idea is just as important as the idea itself. If their wording is important to the point you’re making, or if you can’t rephrase their idea without losing the meaning, then it makes sense to quote the author.
- The use of direct quotes is also related to the area of study. You will find that direct quotes are not commonly used in STEM where paraphrasing is widely used.

How to quote?

Copy the author’s words exactly and add quotation marks around those words in your paper. This must be followed by an in-text citation that includes the page number in your instructor’s preferred citation style.

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Paraphrasing

Is when you incorporate an idea from an outside source using your own words, but still credit the outside source using a citation.

Why paraphrase?

- Improved readability: Everyone has a slightly different writing style. Your ideas are written in your own way/words/style. For your assignment to flow well, the ideas you paraphrase should also be written in your own way/words/style.
- Show your understanding: Reproducing the words of others exactly as they are useful sometimes, but your reader may wonder if you actually understand what you’ve written. Paraphrasing helps to show you have a firm grasp on the material. It is very difficult to accurately paraphrase something you don’t understand.
- Make stronger points: Paraphrasing helps you to integrate the findings or ideas of someone else into your own work in a way that makes them relevant to your specific arguments and your specific assignment.

How to paraphrase?

Paraphrasing requires more than just copying the author’s text and changing out some of the words.

Paraphrasing text

Work on altering both the words and the sentence structure too. Use the following steps to help you paraphrase more effectively:

Read over the original source carefully and make sure you fully understand it.

When taking notes, try to differentiate between passages you copied down directly and those that are already in your own words.

Take helpful notes

You can review your notes but then start writing from scratch. Try not to look back at the original while you write.

Write from scratch

Imagine you are working with a peer who does not understand the original source. If you want to help them understand, it wouldn’t be helpful for you to just repeat the text changing out some of the words for synonyms. You would need to think of a different way of explaining the idea. This is the same goal as paraphrasing.

When you are happy with your new explanation, check it against the original text to ensure you have not lost the author’s original meaning. You should also double check that you haven’t accidently reproduced exact phrases from the original.

Follow the paraphrased idea with an in-text citation.

Paraphrasing text example

Paraphrasing text example

Original Text | Paraphrased | Plagiarized
Diabetes is a global public health threat and clinically challenging disease that in Panama is a product of vigorous and constant urbanization and stress. Source: (McDonald Posso et al., 2016, p. 762). | In their review of the literature, McDonald Posso et al. (2016) found that part of the reason diabetes continues to be an issue in Panama is because more and more people are adopting an urban lifestyle. | Research has shown that diabetes rates in Panama are increasing at an alarming rate due to vigorous and constant urbanization and stress in this area.

Check your knowledge

Check your knowledge

Q: What makes the second example plagiarism? Select all that apply:
- A) It takes an exact phrase from the original text. (correct)
- B) It is missing an in-text citation. (correct)
- C) It adds misleading information. (correct) (Correct The original passage did not state that rates were increasing at an alarming rate.)
- D) It is unrelated to the source.

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Paraphrasing data

Incorporating someone else’s data into your work is similar in many ways to incorporating someone else’s words or ideas. Just as with text, data should be quoted or paraphrased and should be accompanied by a citation. Consider the following:

Use your own words and sentence structure to present the data.

If there are multiple datapoints or statistics presented, only include the numbers more relevant to your argument.

Try presenting the data in a different format, like presenting a fraction as a percentage or vice versa. Just make sure the new format doesn’t change or misrepresent the data.

Paraphrasing data example

Paraphrasing data example

Original Text | Paraphrased | Plagiarized
Etheostoma arcus-celestis, n. sp. Total length less than two inches; usually one and three-fourths to one and seven-eighths inches. Source: (Crevecœur, 1903. p.177) | Crevecœur (1903) reported the length of the fish as typically less than 2 inches (~50.8 mm). | The total length of Etheostoma arcus-celestis is less than 51 mm; it is usually between 44 and 48 mm. ⓘ Explanation: This passage is considered plagiarized because the language and sentence structure it uses is too similar to the original. Converting the data to metric could also be misleading, as it implies a more precise measure.

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Paraphrasing challenges

Paraphrasing can be challenging to do well and takes time and effort.

ⓘ Plan ahead!

If you are unsure how to incorporate a source, or if you are paraphrasing correctly, the best thing you can do is to make your best attempt and check with the instructor or TA. It will be much easier for your instructor or TA to provide feedback and point you in the right direction if you ask these questions before an assignment is due and can show them what you’ve already tried.

Select the tabs below to read more about paraphrasing challenges in STEM disciplines.

Paraphrasing challenges

Paraphrasing challenges in computer science

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In computer science, you will often need to incorporate someone else’s code into your own work. But how do you paraphrase something that is so concise and that may need to be written a specific way to work correctly?

How you cite code will depend on your instructor’s requirements and the assignment you’re working on. As a general practice, if you're using the ideas or code created by others in your own work, you should include a citation. This is done by adding an inline comment in the code that acknowledges your source.

Paraphrasing challenges in computer science

Paraphrasing challenges in engineering

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In engineering, your designs will often be inspired by or based on the ideas of others. It may be helpful to think of this like a form of paraphrasing, in that it is important that you figure out how to include these ideas in a way that supports your own unique ideas/designs and does not pass off the work of others as your own. If the design, circuits, or code you’re using are based on someone else’s work, you must acknowledge this by including a citation.

Paraphrasing challenges in engineering

Paraphrasing challenges in mathematics

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Paraphrasing in math can be intimidating when very precise language and numbers are mixed together to express an idea, theorem, or proof. As with paraphrasing text, it is essential that you fully understand what you’re paraphrasing in order to represent the information correctly. Try proving the theorem yourself, and then check back to the original to make sure your interpretation is correct. In other cases, it might also be helpful to think about how relationships shown in numbers can be explained in words, or vice versa. If a section of a theorem must be reproduced in its original form, indicate this in writing rather than using quotation marks. For example, “The following theorem was taken from..."

Paraphrasing challenges in mathematics

Paraphrasing challenges in science

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Paraphrasing can be difficult in science when wording is often technical and precise, making the use of synonyms inappropriate or impossible. For example, it is difficult to replace words like “endogenous” or expressions like “high-affinity” without altering their meaning. This is also a case where it is essential you have a thorough understanding of the information you’re paraphrasing, so that you don’t accidently use a synonym that changes the meaning of the sentence. If the information you’re paraphrasing is very specific, like a methodology or phenomena, you may only be able to change a few words to paraphrase the information without changing the meaning. This is another case where it’s a good idea to check with your instructor to get an idea of what they expect.

Paraphrasing challenges in science

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Next section shows discipline specific examples of how paraphrasing might be done in a research report or academic paper.

ⓘ These practices may not apply to assignments that focus more on problem solving (e.g., finding solutions to mathematical problems).

Computer science example

Original Text | Paraphrased | Plagiarized
The monolithic model of source code management is not for everyone. It is best suited to organizations like Google, with an open and collaborative culture. It would not work well for organizations where large parts of the codebase are private or hidden between groups. (Potvin & Levenberg, 2016, p. 87). | Potvin and Levenberg (2016) suggest that organizations reflect on how open they are able to make their codebase given their organization’s culture and security requirements, before making the switch to monolithic source code management. | The monolithic model of source code management is poorly suited for organizations that keep large parts of their codebase private or hidden between groups (Potvin & Levenberg).

Computer science example

Q: Check your knowledge

Can you identify what the paraphrased example does well here? Select all that apply.
- A) It is shorter than the original.
- B) It uses a correctly formatted in-text citation. (correct)
- C) It changes the structure of the original text. (correct)

Computer science example

Engineering example

Original Text | Paraphrased | Plagiarized
It’s called the Sensopad™, and it relies on the positional sensing of inductive elements or “pucks.” These inexpensive, little pucks can be embedded within target objects such as dials or switch bodies, allowing position or speed to be sensed very accurately using simple circuitry. | Sensopads use simple circuitry that depends on inductive elements to sense the position or speed of some target object. According to their manufacturer, they can be cheaply embedded in whatever objects are being monitored, such as dials or switches, and will produce accurate measurements [2] | Sensopads are cheap, little puck shaped devices which can be embedded within target objects such as dials or switch bodies. Sensopads rely on the positional sensing of inductive elements to sense position [2]. This example was borrowed from the University of Toronto (n.d.).

This example is taken from the University of Toronto (n.d.).

Check your knowledge

Q: Can you identify the issues with the plagiarized example?
- A) It does not include an in-text citation.
- B) It uses specific phrases from the original without quoting them. (correct)
- C) It contains misleading information.

Engineering example

Mathematics example

Mathematics example

Original text | Paraphrased | Plagiarized
In our experiments, we found several practical advantages of the NMF [non-negative matrix factorization] partitioning models. Their clustering capability outperformed existing approaches under various Gaussian mixture settings and performance measurements. Additionally, NMF was able to recognize ambiguous observations located around the boundaries of major clusters. | When paired with Bayesian clustering models, non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) partitioning allows for clustering that is sensitive to datapoints that fall outside of primary clusters (Wang & Porter, 2018). When NMF partitioning was tested against other popular models, Wang and Porter (2018) determined NMF was the most effective clustering approach. | Wang and Porter (2018) found several practical advantages of the NMF partitioning models. Under various Gaussian mixture settings and performance measures, NMF outperformed other approaches. NMF was also able to identify unclear observations found around the boundaries of major clusters.

Mathematics example

Q: Check your knowledge

Can you identify the issues with the plagiarized example?
- A) It does not provide an accurate citation.
- B) It uses specific phrases from the original without quoting them. (correct)
- C) It misrepresents the information given in the original.

Science example

Original text | Paraphrased | Plagiarized
Fluorescence and fluorescence quenching resulted in assay failure rates of between 0.1 and 0.8% in approximately 5,000 compounds tested in 2007, accounting for between 12 and 49% of total failures. Modified from (Fowler & Zhang, 2008). | Between 12 and 49% of overall failures rates can be attributed to fluorescence and fluorescence quenching which produced failure rates of 0.1 - 0.8% during testing in 2007. (Fowler & Zhang, 2008). | Fluorescence and fluorescence quenching can result in assay failure rates of between 0.1 and 0.8% in at least 5,000 compounds. This accounted for between 12 and 49% of failures (Fowler & Zhang, 2008).

Science example

Q: Check your knowledge

Can you identify the issues with the plagiarized passage? Select all that apply.
- A) The sentence structure and wording are too similar to the original. (correct)
- B) It has been improperly cited.
- C) It contains misleading information. (correct)

Science example

Citing academic sources

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Citations

Now that we’ve covered when to cite and how to incorporate citations using quotations and paraphrasing, let’s take a closer look at how citations are created and properly formatted for academic sources.

Parts of a citation

A proper citation is made up of two parts that work together to ensure that the information you’re using can be traced back to its original source. The two parts of a citation are:

1. In-text citation.

This part of the citation is placed within the body of your writing, following the information or idea you have used. The in-text citation connects the cited information to its corresponding reference in the final reference list. How an in-text citation looks will depend on which citation style you are using. Some styles use the author-date format (Name, Date), while others use numbers to refer to footnotes or reference list entries [1].

Each in-text citation should correspond to a reference list entry at the end of your paper. Reference list entries are longer and contain all of the information one would need to find the information used in your paper, including the type of source and its location.

2. Final reference list.

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References

The terms “reference list,” “references,” “works cited,” and “bibliography” are frequently used interchangeably. Although there are slight differences across disciplines and citation styles, these terms all refer to the formatted list of sources that is placed at the end of your paper or project.

Unless your instructor says otherwise, your reference list should only include sources with corresponding in-text citations in the body of your paper. But what if you found a resource that was a major help during the research process and didn’t end up getting cited in the body of your paper? Take another look at the source and try to identify the piece that was most helpful. See if you can find a place to work that into your paper and cite it.

ⓘ As always, if you’re ever unsure about what to include in your reference list, check with your instructor or TA.

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Citation styles

Citation styles provide guidelines, or rules, on how to format your in-text citations and final reference list. There are many different citation styles to choose from. Check with your instructor to see which citation style they expect you to use.

Citation style guides describe the specific rules for how different materials (books, articles, websites, etc.) should be cited in your paper. The rules need to be followed precisely, just like the rules for writing a computer program, conducting an experiment, or solving a mathematical formula.

For example, if you forget a closing brace or period in a line of code, the code won’t execute properly. References are the same way. There are rules to follow when you write them. If you don’t follow them and put the period in the correct place, it is wrong. These rules provide a consistent style which helps your readers find the item listed in the reference.

The following elements are all required to create a reference:

- Accuracy.
- Completeness.
- Correct order.
- Proper punctuation.

The rules

- Use the style your instructor tells you to use. If your instructor does not specify a style, you can use the one you are most familiar with or chose one that is commonly used in your subject area.
- Do not create your own. Choose an established and well recognized citation style.
- Do not mix styles together. Once you’ve chosen a style, it’s important to stay consistent.

Choosing a style

The two best places to start when you need to learn a citation style are:

- The official website for that style.
- Your library and the Writing Centre. These organizations will have resources you can use and staff that will be happy to help you out.

Learning a style

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Citation styles by STEM discipline

The following list will help give you an idea of the citation styles often used by different STEM disciplines. This is not an exhaustive list, but it will give you a place to start.

Select any tab below to see specific disciplines’ citation examples.

Citation styles by STEM discipline

Citation styles commonly used in computer science

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ACM - Association of Computing Machinery

In-text citation uses a number in square brackets, for example [1]

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

[1] Yoav Freund and Robert E. Schapire.1997. Decision-Theoretic Generalization of On-Line Learning and an Application to Boosting. Journal of Computer and System Sciences 55, 1 (Aug. 1997), 119–139. https://doi org.proxy.lib.uwaterloo.ca/10.1006/jcss.1997.1504

IEEE

In-text citation uses a number in square brackets, for example [1].

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

[1] Y. Freund and R. E. Schapire, “A Decision-Theoretic Generalization of On-Line Learning and an Application to Boosting,” J. Comput. Syst. Sci., vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 119–139, Aug. 1997, doi: 10.1006/jcss.1997.1504.

Citation styles commonly used in computer science

Citation styles commonly used in engineering

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IEEE

In-text citation uses a number in square brackets, for example [1].

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

[1] Y. Sun, Y. Zhang and Y. Wang, “Research on the Fault Coefficient in Complex Electrical Engineering,” Appl. Sci., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 307-319, Aug., 2015, doi: 10.3390/app5030307

APA – American Psychological Association

In-text citation uses the author-date format, for example (Sun, Zhang & Wang, 2015).

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

Eng APA citation

Sun, Y., Zhang, Y. & Wang, Y. (2015). Research on the fault coefficient in complex electrical engineering. Applied Sciences, 5(3), 307-319.

Citation styles commonly used in engineering

Citation styles commonly used in math

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Unlike some other disciplines, mathematics does not have a standard or default citation style. That said, it is probably a good idea to become familiar with AMS style.

AMS – American Mathematical Society

In-text citation uses numbers in square brackets, for example [1].

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

[1] F. Zebardast, R.A. Borzooei, and M. Aaly Kologani, Results on equality algebras, Info. Sci. 381 (2017), 270-282, DOI 10.1016/j.ins.2016.11.027.

Citation styles commonly used in math

Citation styles commonly used in science

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AMA – American Medical Association

In-text citation uses a superscript number, for example¹.

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

1. Topol EJ. High-performance medicine: the convergence of human and artificial intelligence. Nat Med. 2019;25(1):44-56. doi:10.1038/s41591-018-0300-7

ACS - American Chemical Society

In the ACS style, different types of in-text citations are acceptable. Just make sure you are consistent with whichever you choose!

In-text citations may use a superscript number, for example¹ or a number in brackets, for example (1). In-text citation can also use the author-date system, for example (Topol, 2019).

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

(1) Topol, E. J. High-Performance Medicine: The Convergence of Human and Artificial Intelligence. Nat. Med. 2019, 25 (1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-018-0300-7.

APA – American Psychological Association

In-text citation uses the author-date format, for example (Topol, 2019).

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

Science APA citation

Topol, E. J. (2019). High-performance medicine: The convergence of human and artificial intelligence. Nature Medicine, 25(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591018-0300-7

AIP – American Institute of Physics

In-text citation uses a superscript number, for example ¹.

Formatting in a reference list for a journal article example:

¹E.J. Topol, Nat. Med. 25, 44 (2019).

Citation styles commonly used in science

Citing alternative formats and non-academic sources

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In the previous section, we went over how to cite information and ideas found written in academic sources. In this section, we will go a step further to explore how to properly use and cite information that is presented in formats other than text, and in non-academic sources. The goal of this section is to help you appropriately use and cite information in a range of formats from a variety of sources.

Just as we saw with textual information, if you use an image, audio, or video that was created by someone else you must provide a citation formatted in an established style. You may also need permission to use someone else’s intellectual property. This rule applies even if you found the image, audio, or video freely available on the internet.

Non-textual elements

As a STEM student, you may need to include images like graphs, drawings, diagrams, screenshots, photographs, or other figures in your assignments. Including images in your work requires a bit of extra formatting to get right.

To properly format an image for an academic assignment be sure to:

- Put the image in context by introducing it in the body of your writing.
- Label and number the image (e.g., Figure 1).
- Include a caption with the image that includes a title or description.
- Provide an in-text citation or reference. The rules around how this is done will differ depending on the citation style you’re using. For example, IEEE recommends including an in-text citation when the image is introduced in the body of the paper, whereas other styles recommend including source information in the image caption.
- If you’ve adapted or modified the image, be sure to note that as well (e.g., figure adapted from…).

ⓘ If you are usure how to correctly format and cite an image, check with your instructor.

Formatting images

Do I need permission?

As we saw earlier, when reproducing someone else’s intellectual property, you may be required to ask permission. This is particularly important to consider when using non-textual elements because unless you are describing it in words, these elements can’t be paraphrased. If you include an image, you’ve reproduced the image.

Whether or not you need permission to use someone else’s intellectual property will depend on what you are using it for. If you are including a graph or figure from a journal article in an assignment for one of your courses, a citation should be enough. However, if you are including an image from a journal article in your thesis or in a paper you plan to publish, you will need the creator’s permission as well as a citation.

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If you are unsure of whether or not you should be getting permission to use someone else’s intellectual property, ask your instructor. Your institution’s library may also have experts on staff that can help with these types of questions.

Check your knowledge

​​​​​​​Check your knowledge

Which of the following would require you to get permission and/or use citation?

Q: Playing a short clip of a video in a class presentation. [...]
Playing a short clip of a video in a conference presentation. [...]
Using someone else’s full data set to complete your thesis research. [...]
Including a diagram you found online in a class assignment. [...]
A: Permission is not required, but a citation is!; Permission and citation are required.; Permission and citation are required.; Permission is not required, but a citation is!

Non-academic sources

Like information found in academic journal articles, the information you find in non-academic sources like websites, newspapers, or trade publications must also be cited using the citation style used in the rest of the paper. The formatting rules for reference list entries are slightly different depending on the type of source you’re referencing. For example, the reference entry for a book will look different than the reference entry for a journal article.

The style guide for the citation style you are using will outline how different types of academic and non-academic sources should be formatted.

ⓘ The following examples are shown in APA format because this style is widely used by a variety of disciplines. Although different citation styles have different formatting rules, these examples will help to give you an idea of the types of information needed to cite non-academic sources.

Non-academic sources

Websites

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A lot of useful STEM information can be found on websites, including corporate information, government information, and news articles. However, a lot of misinformation can be found on websites as well, so make sure you’re using your RADAR skills to critically evaluate the information you find!

In APA, a reference list entry for a website must include the following elements:

- Author(s), group, or organization that created the content.
- Date the page was last updated (if this is unavailable use “n.d.” for “no date”).
- Page title.
- Site name (if the site name matches the author's name, you do not have to list it again here).
- Date accessed (only required if the information on the page is likely to change).
- URL.

Example

USGS. (n.d.). How many active volcanoes are there on Earth? Retrieved August 10, 2021 from https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-many-active-volcanoes-are-there-earth?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products

Online news articles

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They can be a great place to find the initial reports of ground-breaking discoveries or examples of problems that STEM researchers might help to solve.

In APA, a reference list entry for an online news article must include the following elements:

- Author(s), group, or organization that created the article.
- Date the article was published.
- Article title.
- Publication title.
- URL.

Example

Lohr, S. (2021, September 16). Biology starts to get a technological makeover. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/technology/synthetic-biology.html

Online news articles

Images

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If you are including an image in your work that you found in a book, journal article, or technical report, you should cite the book, article, or report and include a page number for where the image can be found.

If an image has a different creator than the source you’ve found it in, then that image should be cited separately. For example, if a photograph is used in an online news article, giving the author of the written article credit for the photograph would be inappropriate.

In APA, a reference list entry for an image must include the following elements:

- Creator(s), artist(s), or photographer that generated the image.
- Year the image was published or released.
- Image title or brief description.
- Medium or format (painting, photograph, etc.).
- Publisher (website name, museum name and location, etc.).
- Date accessed (if the image was found online and is likely to change).
- URL (if the image was found online).

Example

Johnson, G. C. & Wilkey, J. W. (1963). A proposed arrangement: Pig Capsule “Little Joe” first shot [Drawing]. NASA  Image and Video Library. https://images.nasa.gov/details-S63-19319

Presentations & lecture notes

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If you are reproducing all or part of a presentation or a lecture you may need permission to use that intellectual property, but if you are paraphrasing or quoting a small part of it in your work, this will only require a citation.

Note: Your professor may not require you to cite information you learn during their lectures. Check to see what their preferences are for citing this information.

In APA, the reference list entries for online presentations and lecture notes are similar. They must both include the following elements:

- Presenter(s) or lecturer(s) giving the talk or teaching the class.
- Date of the presentation or lecture.
- Title of presentation or lecture.
- Format of presentation or lecture notes (e.g., panel presentation, video, lecture notes, PowerPoint slides, etc.).
- Publisher, streaming service, or forum.
- URL.

Examples

a) Online presentation

Boisvert, H. (2019, May). How I’m using biological data to tell better stories – and spark social change [Video]. TED. https://www.ted.com/talks/heidi_boisvert_how_i_m_using_biological_data_to_tell_better_stories_and_spark_social_change#t-141311

b) Lecture slides

Carpenter, J. (2021, July 28). Binaries [PowerPoint slides]. LEARN. https://yourcoursewebsite.ca

Presentations & lecture notes

Books & textbooks

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In APA style, books and textbooks are referenced using the same elements and formatting.

In APA, the reference list entry for a book must include the following elements:

- Author(s) of the book or editor(s) if there are no authors listed.
- Year the book was published.
- Title of the book.
- Edition if it is not the first.
- Publisher name.
- DOI if available.

Example

Goldberg, M. L., Hartwell, L., Fischer, J. A., & Hood, L. E. (2021). Genetics: From genes to genomes (7th ed.). McGraw Hill.

Books & textbooks

Data sets

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If you are using data that someone else has collected, you must always cite your source. If you are using a full data set that someone else has compiled you will also need to ask permission to use their data.

In APA, the reference list entry for a data set must include the following elements:

- Name of the researcher(s), group, or organization that collected and compiled the data.
- Year the version of the data you’re using was published.
- Title of the data set.
- Numerical identifier and version number if available.
- Description (e.g., “Data set” or “Data set and code book”).
- Publisher name.
- DOI or URL.

Example

Ekos Research Associates Inc. (2009). Water quality on-reserve quantitative research, 2009 [Canada] (WQS-E-2009) [Public use microdata file]. Health Canada. http://odesi2.scholarsportal.info/webview/

Data sets

Patents

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A patent is a legal document that protects the intellectual property of inventors, by granting them exclusive rights to an invention. Depending on your discipline, you may encounter assignments that require you to find and use patent information.

In APA, the reference list entry for a patent must include the following elements:

- Name of the inventor(s).
- Year the patent was granted.
- Title of the patent.
- Patent number.
- Patent office name.

Example

Marshall, P. S. (2000). Virtual reality generator for displaying abstract information. (US Patent No. 6,073,115). United States Patent and Trademark Office. https://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PTXT&s1=6,073,115.PN.&OS=PN/6,073,115&RS=PN/6,073,115

Computer code

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When using parts of someone else’s code or adapting it, you should make sure that you have permission to use the code and cite your source. Source code can be cited using an inline comment within your code and in any report or presentation that describes your code. Remember to check with your instructor to make sure you fully understand their expectations around reusing and citing code.

The following example applies to references you would include in the final reference list of a report or presentation. Different formatting will apply to citing within your code.

In APA, the reference list entry for computer code must include the following elements:

- Author of the source code you use or adapt.
- Year the code was created.
- Title of program or code.
- Version number.
- Format (e.g., source code, computer program, etc.).
- URL.

Example

Huang, L. (2021). Fishdraw (Version 1.0)[Source Code]. https://github.com/LingDong-/fishdraw/blob/main/fishdraw.js

Computer code

Module 5: wrap up

In this module you learned about:

- Knowing when to cite and what is common knowledge.
- How to incorporate outside sources using quotations and paraphrasing.
- The parts of a citation and citation rules, styles, and formatting.
- How to use and cite non-textual elements and non-academic sources, including when you might have to think about getting permission.

Check your knowledge

To reflect on what you’ve learned, try answering the following True or False questions.

True/False Question 1

Q: You should always check with your instructor to see which citation style they prefer for you to use.
A: true

True/False Question 2

Q: You always need to get permission before using an image.
A: false
If right: Citation may be enough if it’s for a class project.

True/False Question 3

Q: Paraphrasing is a more effective way to show that you understand the information you’re sharing.
A: true
If right: Quotations should be used sparingly.

True/False Question 4

Q: If a new scientific breakthrough is reported enough in the news, it can be considered common knowledge.
A: false
If right: New scientific breakthroughs should always be cited.

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Congratulations!

You’ve completed the 5th Academic Integrity in STEM module.

Credits: Low-angle Photo of Fireworks; by Rovenimages; source https://rovenimages.com/?ref=pexels; licence PD

References

Crevecœur, F.F. (1903). A new species of fish. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, 18, 177.

Fowler, S. & Zhang, H. (2008). In vitro evaluation of reversible and irreversible cytochrome P450 inhibition: Current status on methodologies and their utility for predicting drug-drug interactions. AAPS Journal, 10(2), 410-424.

Macha, M. & Akoglu, L. (2018). Explaining anomalies in groups with characterizing subspace rules. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery,32(5), 1444-1480. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.uwaterloo.ca/10.1007/s10618-018-0585-7

McDonald Posso, A. J., Bradshaw Meza, R. A., Mendoza Morales, E. A., Jaen, Y., Ortega, A. C., & Mendoza Posada, E. J. (2016). Diabetes in Panama: Epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical management. Annals of Global Health, 81(6), 754–764. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.12.014

NASA. (n.d.) Climate change: How do we know? Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Retrieved July 23, 2021, from https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/

Potvin, R. & Levenberg, J. (2016). Why Google stores billions of lines of code in a single repository. Communications of the ACM, 59(7), 78-87. https://doi org.proxy.lib.uwaterloo.ca/10.1145/2854146

University of Toronto. (n.d.). Using sources paraphrase and plagiarism. Engineering Communication Program. Retrieved July 29, 2021, from https://ecp.engineering.utoronto.ca/resources/online-handbook/accurate-documentation/using-sources-paraphrase-and-plagiarism/

Wang, K. & Porter, M.D. (2018). Optimal Bayesian clustering using non-negative matrix factorization. Computational Statistics and Data Analysis, 128, 395-411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2018.08.002

Eberle, M. E. (2013). Paraphrasing, Plagiarism, and Misrepresentation in Scientific Writing. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, 116(3/4), 157–67. https://doi.org/10.1660/062.116.0310

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (n.d.). What is Common Knowledge? Retrieved June 23, 2021, from https://integrity.mit.edu/handbook/citing-your-sources/what-common-knowledge

Purdue Online Writing Lab. (2021). Common Knowledge & Attribution. Retrieved June 23, 2021, from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/avoiding_plagiarism/common-knowledge_attribution.html

Szigeti, K. (2021). Avoid Plagiarism, or How to Successfully use the Works of Others. Retrieved June 23, 2021, from https://subjectguides.uwaterloo.ca/avoidplagiarism/home

Credit and licensing

Content Creators: Amanda McKenzie, Erin Nearing, Maria Barichello, Rebecca Hutchinson, Stephanie Mutch, Kathy Szigeti, and Kari D. Weaver.

Instructional and Graphic Designers: Stefaniada Voichita, Hiba Zubairi, Cathy Sebastian, Anthony Maocheia-Ricci, Mike Chee, and Kari D. Weaver.

Additional feedback was generously contributed by many faculty, staff, and students at the University of Waterloo, McMaster University, Queen’s University, and the University of Guelph.

This module was created with financial support from a 2021 eCampus Ontario Virtual Learning Strategy Grant and is licensed under a Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution-Non Commercial License (CC 4.0 BY-NC).

Attribution may be indicated as follows:
McKenzie, A., Nearing, E., Barichello, M., Hutchinson, R., Mutch, S., Szigeti, K., Weaver, K. D., Voichita, S., Chee, M., Zubairi, H., Sebastian, C., & Maocheia-Ricci, A. (2022). Citing your sources. eCampus Ontario. Link to repository. Used under CC 4.0 BY-NC.

For more information or to request permission for a non-licensed use, please email academic.integrity@uwaterloo.ca

Territorial acknowledgement

This project was led by individuals who live and work in Waterloo, which is the traditional territory of the Neutral, Anishinaabeg and Haudenosaunee peoples. The University of Waterloo’s main campus is situated on the Haldimand Tract, the land granted to the Six Nations that includes six miles on each side of the Grand River. Our active work toward reconciliation takes place across our campuses through research, learning, teaching, and community building, and is centralized within our Indigenous Initiatives Office .

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